KUMPULAN BAHAN METHOD OF TEACHING
* MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE
The theory of multiple intelligences was proposed by Howard Gardner in his 1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences as a model of intelligence
that differentiates it into specific (primarily sensory) "modalities",
rather than seeing it as dominated by a single general ability.
Gardner argues that there is a wide range of cognitive abilities,
and that there are only very weak correlations among them. For example,
the theory postulates that a child who learns to multiply easily is not
necessarily more intelligent than a child who has more difficulty on
this task. The child who takes more time to master multiplication may
best learn to multiply through a different approach, may excel in a
field outside mathematics, or may be looking at and understanding the
multiplication process at a fundamentally deeper level. Such a
fundamental understanding can result in slowness and can hide a
mathematical intelligence potentially higher than that of a child who
quickly memorizes the multiplication table despite possessing a
shallower understanding of the process of multiplication.
intelligence tests and psychometrics
have generally found high correlations between different aspects of
intelligence, rather than the low correlations which Gardner's theory
predicts, supporting the prevailing theory of general intelligent
rather than multiple intelligences (MI). The theory has been widely
criticized by mainstream psychology for its lack of empirical evidence,
and its dependence on subjective judgement. Certain models of
alternative education employ the approaches suggested by the theory.
Gardner articulated seven criteria for a behavior to be considered an intelligence.These were that the intelligences showed:
- Potential for brain isolation by brain damage,
- Place in evolutionary history,
- Presence of core operations,
- Susceptibility to encoding (symbolic expression),
- A distinct developmental progression,
- The existence of savants, prodigies and other exceptional people,
- Support from experimental psychology and psychometrics findings.
Gardner chose eight abilities that he held to meet these criteria:
spatial, linguistic, logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, musical,
interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic. He later suggested that
existential and moral intelligence may also be worthy of inclusion.
Logical-mathematical
This area has to do with logic, abstractions, reasoning and numbers
and critical thinking. This also has to do with having the capacity to
understand the underlying principles of some kind of causal system.Logical reasoning is closely linked to fluid intelligence and to general intelligence (g factor).
Spatial
Main article: Spatial intelligence (psychology)
This area deals with spatial judgment and the ability to visualize
with the mind's eye. Spatial ability is one of the three factors beneath
g in the hierarchical model of intelligence.
Linguistic
People with high verbal-linguistic intelligence display a facility
with words and languages. They are typically good at reading, writing,
telling stories and memorizing words along with dates. Verbal ability is
one of the most g-loaded abilities. This type of intelligence is associated with the Verbal IQ in WAIS-III.
Bodily-kinesthetic
Main article: Kinesthetic learning
The core elements of the bodily-kinesthetic
intelligence are control of one's bodily motions and the capacity to
handle objects skillfully. Gardner elaborates to say that this also
includes a sense of timing, a clear sense of the goal of a physical
action, along with the ability to train responses.
People who have bodily-kinesthetic intelligence should learn better
by involving muscular movement (e.g. getting up and moving around into
the learning experience), and be generally good at physical activities
such as sports, dance, acting, and making things.
Gardner believes that careers that suit those with this intelligence include: athletes, pilots, dancers, musicians, actors, surgeons, builders, police officers, and soldiers.
Although these careers can be duplicated through virtual simulation,
they will not produce the actual physical learning that is needed in
this intelligence.
Musical
Further information: auditory learning
This area has to do with sensitivity to sounds, rhythms, tones, and music. People with a high musical intelligence normally have good pitch and may even have absolute pitch,
and are able to sing, play musical instruments, and compose music.
Since there is a strong auditory component to this intelligence, those
who are strongest in it may learn best via lecture. They will sometimes
use songs or rhythms to learn. They have sensitivity to rhythm, pitch,
meter, tone, melody or timbre.
This area has to do with interaction with others.
In theory, individuals who have high interpersonal intelligence are
characterized by their sensitivity to others' moods, feelings,
temperaments and motivations, and their ability to cooperate in order to
work as part of a group. According to Gardner in How Are Kids Smart: Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom, "Inter- and Intra- personal intelligence is often misunderstood with being extroverted or liking other people..."
Those with this intelligence communicate effectively and empathize
easily with others, and may be either leaders or followers. They
typically learn best by working with others and often enjoy discussion
and debate.
Gardner believes that careers that suit those with this intelligence include sales, politicians, managers, teachers, counselors and social workers.
This area has to do with introspective
and self-reflective capacities. This refers to having a deep
understanding of the self; what your strengths/ weaknesses are, what
makes you unique, being able to predict your own reactions/emotions.
This area has to do with nurturing and relating information to one’s
natural surroundings. Examples include classifying natural forms such as
animal and plant species and rocks and mountain types. This ability was
clearly of value in our evolutionary past as hunters, gatherers, and
farmers; it continues to be central in such roles as botanist or chef.
Some proponents of multiple intelligence theory proposed spiritual or
religious intelligence as a possible additional type. Gardner did not
want to commit to a spiritual intelligence, but suggested that an
"existential" intelligence may be a useful construct. The hypothesis of an existential intelligence has been further explored by educational researchers.
* THE GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD
The grammar-translation method is a method of teaching foreign languages derived from the classical (sometimes called traditional) method of teaching Greek and Latin. In grammar-translation classes, students learn grammatical rules and then apply those rules by translating sentences between the target language and their native language. Advanced students may be required to translate whole texts word-for-word. The method has two main goals: to enable students to read and translate literature written in the target language, and to further students’ general intellectual development.
History and philosophy
The grammar-translation method originated from the practice of
teaching Latin. In the early 1500s, Latin was the most widely-studied
foreign language due to its prominence in government, academia, and
business.However, during the course of the century the use of Latin
dwindled, and it was gradually replaced by English, French, and Italian.
After the decline of Latin, the purpose of learning it in schools
changed. Whereas previously students had learned Latin for the purpose
of communication, it came to be learned as a purely academic subject.
Throughout Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries, the education system was formed primarily around a concept called faculty psychology. This theory dictated that the body and mind were separate and the mind consisted of three parts: the will, emotion, and intellect.
It was believed that the intellect could be sharpened enough to
eventually control the will and emotions. The way to do this was through
learning classical literature of the Greeks and Romans, as well as
mathematics. Additionally, an adult with such an education was considered mentally prepared for the world and its challenges.
At first it was believed that teaching modern languages was not
useful for the development of mental discipline and thus they were left
out of the curriculum.
When modern languages did begin to appear in school curricula in the
19th century, teachers taught them with the same grammar-translation
method as was used for classical Latin and Greek. As a result, textbooks were essentially copied for the modern language
classroom. In the United States of America, the basic foundations of
this method were used in most high school and college foreign language
classrooms.
There are two main goals to grammar-translation classes. One is to
develop students’ reading ability to a level where they can read
literature in the target language.
The other is to develop students’ general mental discipline. The users
of foreign language wanted simply to note things of their interest in
the literature of foreign languages. Therefore, this method focuses on
reading and writing and has developed techniques which facilitate more
or less the learning of reading and writing only. As a result, speaking
and listening are overlooked.
Grammar-translation classes are usually conducted in the students’ native language.
Grammar rules are learned deductively; students learn grammar rules by
rote, and then practice the rules by doing grammar drills and
translating sentences to and from the target language. More attention is
paid to the form of the sentences being translated than to their
content. When students reach more advanced levels of achievement, they
may translate entire texts from the target language. Tests often consist
of the translation of classical texts.
There is not usually any listening or speaking practice, and very little attention is placed on pronunciation or any communicative aspects of the language. The skill exercised is reading, and then only in the context of translation.
The mainstay of classroom materials for the grammar-translation
method is the textbook. Textbooks in the 19th century attempted to
codify the grammar of the target language into discrete rules for
students to learn and memorize. A chapter in a typical
grammar-translation textbook would begin with a bilingual vocabulary
list, after which there would be grammar rules for students to study and
sentences for them to translate.Some typical sentences from 19th-century textbooks are as follows:
The philosopher pulled the lower jaw of the hen.
My sons have bought the mirrors of the Duke.
The cat of my aunt is more treacherous than the dog of your uncle.
The method by definition has a very limited scope. Because speaking
or any kind of spontaneous creative output was missing from the
curriculum, students would often fail at speaking or even letter writing
in the target language. A noteworthy quote describing the effect of
this method comes from Bahlsen, who was a student of Plötz, a major
proponent of this method in the 19th century. In commenting about
writing letters or speaking he said he would be overcome with "a
veritable forest of paragraphs, and an impenetrable thicket of
grammatical rules."
According to Richards and Rodgers, the grammar-translation has been
rejected as a legitimate language teaching method by modern scholars:
Though it may be true to say that the Grammar-Translation Method is still widely practiced, it has no advocates. It is a method for which there is no theory. There is no literature that offers a rationale or justification for it or that attempts to relate it to issues in linguistics, psychology, or educational theory.
The grammar-translation method was the standard way languages were
taught in schools from the 17th to the 19th century. Despite attempts at
reform from Roger Ascham, Montaigne, Comenius and John Locke, no other methods gained any significant popularity during this time.
Later, theorists such as Vietor, Passy, Berlitz, and Jespersen
began to talk about what a new kind of foreign language instruction
needed, shedding light on what the grammar translation was missing. They
supported teaching the language, not about the language, and teaching
in the target language, emphasizing speech as well as text. Through
grammar translation, students lacked an active role in the classroom,
often correcting their own work and strictly following the textbook.
The grammar-translation method is still in use today in hybrid forms in many different countries, including many parts of India.
* WHOLE LANGUAGE
Whole language
describes a literacy philosophy which
emphasizes that children should focus on meaning and strategy
instruction. It is often contrasted with phonics-based
methods of teaching reading and writing which emphasize instruction for
decoding and spelling. However, from whole language practitioners'
perspective, this view is erroneous and sets up a false dichotomy. Whole
language practitioners teach to develop a knowledge of language
including the graphophonic, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic aspects of
language. Within a whole language perspective, language is treated as a
complete meaning-making system, the parts of which function in
relational ways. It has drawn criticism by those who advocate "back to
basics" pedagogy or reading instruction because whole language is based
on a limited body of scientific research.
Overview
Whole language is an educational
philosophy that is complex to
describe, particularly because it is informed by multiple research
fields including but not limited to education, linguistics, psychology,
sociology, and anthropology (see also Language Experience Approach).
Several strands run through most descriptions of whole language:
- focus on making meaning in reading and expressing meaning in writing;
- constructivist approaches to knowledge creation, emphasizing students' interpretations of text and free expression of ideas in writing (often through daily journal entries);
- emphasis on high-quality and culturally-diverse literature;
- integrating literacy into other areas of the curriculum, especially math, science, and social studies;
- frequent reading
- with students in small "guided reading" groups
- to students with "read alouds"
- by students independently;
- reading and writing for real purposes;
- focus on motivational aspects of literacy, emphasizing the love of books and engaging reading materials;
- meaning-centered whole to part to whole instruction where phonics are taught contextually in "embedded" phonics (different from Synthetic phonics or Analytical phonics); and
- emphasis on using and understanding the meaning-making role of phonics, grammar, spelling, capitalization and punctuation in diverse social contexts.
Underlying premises
Cognitive skills of reading
- Sub-lexical reading
Sub-lexical reading
involves teaching reading by associating characters or groups of
characters with sounds or by using phonics learning and teaching
methodology. Sometimes argued to be in competition with whole language
methods.
- Lexical reading
Lexical reading
involves acquiring words or phrases without attention to the characters
or groups of characters that compose them or by using Whole language
learning and teaching methodology. Sometimes argued to be in competition
with phonics methods, and that the whole language approach tends to
impair learning how to spell.
Learning theory
The idea of "whole" language has its
basis in a range of theories of learning related to the epistemologies
called "holism".
Holism is based upon the belief that it is not possible to understand
learning of any kind by analyzing small chunks of the learning system.
Holism was very much a response to behaviorism, which emphasized that
the world could be understood by experimenting with stimuli and
responses. Holists considered this a reductionist
perspective that did not recognize that "the whole is greater than the
sum of its parts." Analyzing individual behaviors, holists argued, could
never tell us how the entire human mind worked. This is—in simplified
terms—the theoretical basis for the term "whole language."
Chomsky and Goodman
The whole language approach to phonics grew out of Noam Chomsky's ideas about language acquisition. In 1967, Ken Goodman
had an idea about reading, which he considered similar to Chomsky's,
and he wrote a widely-cited article calling reading a "psycholinguistic
guessing game". He chided educators for attempting to apply what he saw
as unnecessary orthographic order to a process that relied on holistic examination of words.
Goodman thought that there are four "cueing systems" for reading, four things that readers have to guess what word comes next:
- graphophonemic: the shapes of the letters, and the sounds that they evoke (see phonetics).
- semantic: what word one would expect to occur based on the meaning of the sentence so far (see semantics).
- syntactic: what part of speech or word would make sense based on the grammar of the language (see syntax).
- pragmatic: what is the function of the text
The "graph" part of the word "graphophonemic" means the shape or
symbol of the graphic input, i.e., the text. According to Goodman, these
systems work together to help readers guess the right word. He
emphasized that pronouncing individual words will involve the use of all
three systems (letter clues, meaning clues from context, and
syntactical structure of the sentence).
The graphophonemic cues are related to the sounds we hear (the
phonological system including individual letters and letter
combinations), the letters of the alphabet, and the conventions of
spelling, punctuation and print. Students who are emerging readers use
these cues considerably. However, in the English language there is a
very imprecise relationship between written symbols and sound symbols. Sometimes the relationships and their patterns do not work, as in the example of great and head.
Proficient readers and writers draw on their prior experiences with
text and the other cueing systems, as well as the phonological system,
as their reading and writing develops. Ken Goodman writes that, "The cue
systems are used simultaneously and interdependently. What constitutes
useful graphic information depends on how much syntactic and semantic
information is available. Within high contextual constraints an initial
consonant may be all that is needed to identify an element and make
possible the prediction of an ensuing sequence or the confirmation of
prior predictions."
He continues with, "Reading requires not so much skills as strategies
that make it possible to select the most productive cues." He believes
that reading involves the interrelationship of all the language systems.
Readers sample and make judgments about which cues from each system
will provide the most useful information in making predictions that will
get them to meaning. Goodman
provides a partial list of the various systems readers use as they
interact with text. Within the graphophonemic system there are:
- Letter-sound relationships
- Shape (or word configuration)
- Know ‘little words’ in bigger words
- Whole know words
- Recurrent spelling patterns
The semantic cuing system is the one in which meaning is
constructed. "So focused is reading on making sense that the visual
input, the perceptions we form, and the syntactic patterns we assign are
all directed by our meaning construction."
The key component of the semantic system is context. A reader must be
able to attach meaning to words and have some prior knowledge to use as a
context for understanding the word. They must be able to relate the
newly learned word to prior knowledge through personal associations with
text and the structure of text.
The semantic system is developed from the beginning through early
interactions with adults. At first, this usually involves labeling (e.g.
This is a dog). Then labeling becomes more detailed (e.g., It is a
Labrador dog. Its coat is black.) The child learns that there is a set
of "dog attributes" and that within the category "dog", there are
subsets of "dog" (e.g. long-hair, short-hair). The development of this
system and the development of the important concepts that relate to the
system are largely accomplished as children begin to explore language
independently. As children speak about what they’ve done and play out
their experiences, they are making personal associations between their
experiences and language. This is critical to success in later literacy
practices such as reading comprehension and writing. The meaning people
bring to the reading is available to them through every cuing system,
but it’s particularly influential as we move from our sense of the
syntactic patterns to the semantic structures.
To support the reader in developing the semantic system, ask, "Does that make sense"?
The syntactic system, according to Goodman and Watson,
includes the interrelation of words and sentences within connected
text. In the English language, syntactic relations include word order,
tense, number, and gender. The syntactic system is also concerned with
word parts that change the meaning of a word, called morphemes. For
example, adding the suffix "less" or adding "s" to the end of a word
changes its meaning or tense. As speakers of English, people know where
to place subjects, which pronoun to use and where adjectives occur.
Individual word meaning is determined by the place of the word in the
sentence and the particular semantic or syntactic role it occupies.For example: The mayor was present when he received a beautiful present from the present members of the board.
The syntactic system is usually in place when children begin school.
Immersed in language, children begin to recognize that phrases and
sentences are usually ordered in certain ways. This notion of ordering
is the development of syntax. Like all the cueing systems, syntax
provides the possibility of correct prediction when trying to make sense
or meaning of written language. Goodman notes the cues found in the
flow of language are:
- Patterns of words (or function order)
- Inflection and inflectional agreement
- Function words such as noun markers (the, a, that)
- Intonation (which is poorly represented in writing by punctuation)
To support a reader in developing the syntactic system, ask, "Can we say it that way? Does that sound right?"
The pragmatic system is also involved in the construction of
meaning while reading. This brings into play the socio-cultural
knowledge of the reader. It provides information about the purposes and
needs the reader has while reading. Yetta Goodman and Dorothy Watson
state that, "Language has different meaning depending on the reason for
use, the circumstances in which the language is used, and the ideas
writers and readers have about the contextual relations with the
language users. Language cannot exist outside a sociocultural context,
which includes the prior knowledge of the language user. For example,
shopping lists, menus, reports and plays are arranged uniquely and are
dependent on the message, the intent, the audience, and the context."
By the time children begin school, they may have developed an
inferred understanding of some of the pragmatics of a particular
situation. For example, turn taking in conversation, reading poetry or a
shopping list. "While different materials may share common semantic,
syntactic, and graphophonic features, each genre has its own
organization and each requires certain experiences by the reader."
To support the reader in developing the pragmatic system ask, "What is the purpose and function of this literacy event?"
Goodman performed a study where children first read words
individually, and then read the same words in connected text. He found
that the children did better when they read the words in connected text.
Later replications of the experiment failed to find effects, however,
when children did not read the same words in connected text immediately
after reading them individually, as they had in Goodman's experiment.
Goodman's theory has been criticized by other researchers who favor a
phonics-based approach, and present research to support their
viewpoint. Critics argue that good readers use decoding as their primary
approach to reading, and use context to confirm that what they have
read makes sense.
Application of Goodman's theory
Goodman's argument was compelling to
educators as a way of thinking
about beginning reading and literacy more broadly. This led to the idea
that reading and writing were ideas that should be considered as wholes,
learned by experience and exposure more than analysis and didactic
instruction. This largely accounts for the focus on time spent reading,
especially independent reading. Many classrooms (whole language or
otherwise) include silent reading time, sometimes called DEAR ("Drop
Everything And Read") time or SSR (sustained silent reading).
Some versions of this independent reading time include a structured
role for the teacher, especially Reader's Workshop. Despite the
popularity of the extension of Chomsky's linguistic ideas to literacy,
there is some neurological and experimental research that has concluded
that reading, unlike language, is not a pre-programmed human skill. It
must be learned. Dr. Sally Shaywitz, a neurologist at Yale University, is credited with much of the research on the neurological structures of reading.
Contrasts with phonics
Because of this holistic emphasis, whole language is contrasted with
skill-based areas of instruction, especially phonics and synthetic
phonics. Phonics instruction is a commonly-used technique for teaching
students to read. Phonics instruction tends to emphasize attention to
the individual components of words, for example, the phonemes /k/, /æ/, and /t/ are represented by the graphemes c, a, and t.
Because they do not focus exclusively on the individual parts, tending
to focus on the relationship of parts to and within the larger context,
whole language proponents do not favor some types of phonics
instruction. Interestingly, whole language advocates state that they do
teach, and believe in, phonics, especially a type of phonics known as
embedded phonics. In embedded phonics, letters are taught during other
lessons focused on meaning and the phonics component is considered a
"minilesson". Instruction in embedded phonics typically emphasizes the
consonants and the short vowels, as well as letter combinations called
rimes or phonograms.
The use of this embedded phonics model is called a "whole-part-whole"
approach because, consistent with holistic thinking, students read the
text for meaning first (whole), then examine features of the phonics
system (part) and finally use their new knowledge while reading the text
again (whole). Reading Recovery is a program that uses holistic
practices with struggling readers.
Most whole language advocates see that children go through stages of
spelling development as they develop, use and gain control over written
language. Early literacy research conducted by Piagetian researcher,
Emilia Ferreiro and published in her landmark book, Literacy Before
Schooling, has been replicated by University of Alabama professor,
Maryann Manning. Based on this research "invented spelling" is another
"whole-part-whole" approach: children learn to read by writing in a
meaningful context, e.g. by writing letters to others. To write a word
they have to decompose its spoken form into sounds and then to translate
them into letters, e.g. k, a, t for the phonemes /k/, /æ/, and /t/. Empirical studies
show that later orthographic development is fostered rather than
hindered by these invented spellings - as long as children from the
beginning are confronted with "book spellings", too.
Rise of whole language and reaction
After its introduction by Goodman, whole language rose in popularity
dramatically. It became a major educational paradigm of the late 1980s
and the 1990s. Despite its popularity during this period, educators who
believed that skill instruction was important for students' learning and
some researchers in education were skeptical of whole language claims
and said so loudly. What followed were the "Reading Wars" of the 1980s
and 1990s between advocates of phonics and those of Whole Language
methodology, which in turn led to several attempts to catalog research
on the efficacy of phonics and whole language. Congress commissioned
reading expert Marilyn Jager Adams
to write a definitive book on the topic. She determined that phonics
was important but suggested that some elements of the whole language
approach were helpful.Two
large scale efforts, in 1998 by the United States National Research
Council's Commission on Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young
Children and in 2000 by the United States National Reading Panel,
catalogued the most important elements of a reading program. While
proponents of whole language find the latter to be controversial, both
panels found that phonics instruction of varying kinds, especially
analytic and Synthetic Phonics,
contributed positively to students' ability to read words on tests of
reading words in isolation. Both panels also found that embedded phonics
and no phonics contributed to lower rates of achievement for most
populations of students when measured on test of reading words in
isolation. The Panel recommended an approach it described as
"scientifically-based reading research" (SBRR), that cited 5 elements
essential to effective reading instruction, one of which was explicit,
Systematic Phonics instruction (phonological awareness, reading
comprehension, vocabulary, and fluency were the other 4).
In December 2005 the Australian Government endorsed the teaching of
synthetic phonics, and discredited the whole language approach ("on its
own"). Its Department of Education, Science and Training published a
National Inquiry into the Teaching of Literacy.
The report states "The evidence is clear, whether from research, good
practice observed in schools, advice from submissions to the Inquiry,
consultations, or from Committee members’ own individual experiences,
that direct systematic instruction in phonics during the early years of
schooling is an essential foundation for teaching children to read." Pg
11. See Synthetic phonics#Acceptance in Australia
State of the debate
Despite these results, many whole language advocates continue to
argue that their approach, including embedded phonics, has been shown to
improve student achievement. Whole language advocates sometimes
criticize advocates of skill instruction as "reductionist"
and describe the use of phonics as "word calling" because it does not
involve the use of meaning. The United States National Reading Panel is
criticized especially harshly by some in the whole language community
for failing to include qualitative research designs that showed benefits
for embedded phonics (the panel only considered experiments and quasi-experiments).
On the other hand, some parents and teachers have objected to the
de-emphasis on phonics in whole language-based curricula such as Reading
Recovery and advocated their removal from schools.
Adoption of some whole language concepts
While rancor continues, much of whole
language's emphasis on quality literature, cultural diversity, and
reading in groups and to students is widely supported
by the educational community. The importance of motivation, long a
central focus of whole language approaches, has gained more attention in
the broader educational community in the last few years. Prominent
critic of whole language Louisa Cook Moats has argued, however, that the
foci on quality literature, diversity, reading groups, and motivation
are not the sole property of whole language.She, and others,
contend these components of instruction are supported by educators of
diverse educational perspectives. Moats contends that the properties
essential to Whole Language, and those that render it ineffective and
unfit for reading education are the principles that children learn to
read from exposure to print, the hostility to drilling in phonics and
other forms of direct instruction, and the tendency to endorse the use
of context-clues and guess-work to decipher a word rather than phonemic
decoding. In these and certain other tenets lie the essence and the
error of Whole Language. Emphases on cultural diversity and quality
literature is neither limited to Whole Language nor fundamental to it.
Balanced Literacy
More recently, "Balanced Literacy"
has been suggested as an integrative approach, portrayed by its
advocates as taking the best elements of both whole language and
code-emphasizing phonics, something advocated by Adams in 1990. The New York Public School
system has adopted Balanced Literacy as its literacy curriculum, though
critics of whole language have suggested that "Balanced Literacy" is
just the disingenuous recasting of the very same whole language with
obfuscating new terminology. Equally vociferously, the whole language
advocates have criticized the United States National Reading Panel.
Allington went so far as to use the term "big brother" to describe the
government's role in the reading debate.
No Child Left Behind
has brought a resurgence of interest in phonics. Whole language has
thus during the 2000s receded from being the dominant reading model in
the education field to marginal status, and it continues to fade.
Thinkers
Prominent proponents of whole
language include Kenneth Goodman, Frank Smith (psycholinguist), Carolyn
Burke, Jerome Harste, Yetta Goodman, Dorothy Watson, Regie Routman,
Steven Krashen, and Richard Allington.
Widely-known whole language detractors
include Louisa Cook Moats, G. Reid Lyon, James Kauffman, Phillip Gough,
Keith Stanovich, Diane McGuinness, Douglas Carnine, Edward Kame'enui,
Jerry Silbert, Lynn Melby Gordon, Rudolf Flesch, and Jeanne Chall.
* AUDIO LINGUAL METHOD
Background
audio lingual method is the method that was introduced in the united states in the 1940's.
it was introduced in indonesia in the 1960's.
not a lot of literature and most of the ideas in this section is adapted from how to teach foreign languages effectively.
Approach
a. approach language theory
- speaking is the primary requirement
- writing is secondary needs.
b. learning approach
- behavioral habits.
Teaching and Learning Activity
- Teacher give a brief summary of the dialog.
- Student listen the dialog when the teacher read or speak about the dialog.
- Student repeat again the dialog together.
- Repeat again one by one about the dialog.
- Finally, in pairs come to in front of the class to practice the dialog.
* DIRECT METHOD
The direct method of teaching, sometimes called the natural method. Not limited to but often used in teaching foreign languages, the method refrains from using the learners' native language and uses only the target language. It was established in Germany and France around 1900. Characteristic features of the direct method are:
- teaching concepts and vocabulary through pantomiming, real-life objects and other visual materials
- teaching grammar by using an inductive approach (i.e. having learners find out rules through the presentation of adequate linguistic forms in the target language)
- centrality of spoken language (including a native-like pronunciation)
- focus on question-answer patterns
Principles
- Classroom instructions are conducted exclusively in the target language.
- Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught during the initial phase; grammar, reading and writing are introduced in intermediate phase.
- Oral communication skills are built up in a carefully graded progression organized around question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and students in small, intensive classes.
- Grammar is taught inductively.
- New teaching points are introduced orally.
- Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract vocabulary is taught by association of ideas.
- Both speech and listening comprehensions are taught.
- Correct pronunciation and grammar are emphasized.
- Student should be speaking approximately 80% of the time during the lesson.
- Students are taught from inception to ask questions as well as answer them.
Pedagogy
The key Aspects of this method are:
I. Introduction of new word, number, alphabet character, sentence or concept (referred to as an Element) :
- • SHOW...Point to Visual Aid or Gestures (for verbs), to ensure student clearly understands what is being taught.
- • SAY...Teacher verbally introduces Element, with care and enunciation.
- • TRY...Student makes various attempts to pronounce new Element.
- • MOLD...Teacher corrects student if necessary, pointing to mouth to show proper shaping of lips, tongue and relationship to teeth.
- • REPEAT...Student repeats each Element 5-20 times.
NOTE: Teacher should be aware of "high frequency words and verbs" and
prioritize teaching for this. (i.e. Teach key verbs such as "To Go" and
"To Be" before unusual verbs like "To Trim" or "To Sail"; likewise,
teach Apple and Orange before Prune and Cranberry.)
II. Syntax, the correct location of new Element in sentence:
- • SAY & REPEAT...Teacher states a phrase or sentence to student; Student repeats such 5-20 times.
- • ASK & REPLY IN NEGATIVE...Teacher uses Element in negative situations (e.g. "Are you the President of the United States?" or "Are you the teacher?"); Students says "No". If more advanced, may use the negative with "Not".
- • INTERROGATIVES Teacher provides intuitive examples using 5 "w"s (Who, What, Where, Why, When) or How". Use random variations to practice.
- • PRONOUNS WITH VERBS Using visuals (such as photos or illustrations) or gestures, Teacher covers all pronouns. Use many random variations such as "Is Ana a woman?" or "Are they from France?" to practice.
- • USE AND QUESTIONS...Student must choose and utilize the correct Element, as well as posing appropriate questions as Teacher did.
III. Progress, from new Element to new Element (within same lesson):
- A. Random Sequencing:
- 1. After new Element (X) is taught and learned, go to next Element (Y).
- 2. After next Element (Y) is taught and learned, return to practice with Element (X).
- 3. After these two are alternated (X-Y; Y-X; Y-Y, etc), go to 3rd Element (Z).
- 4. Go back to 1 and 2, mix in 3, practice (X-Y-Z; Z-Y-X; Y-Y-Z, etc.) and continue building up to appropriate number of Elements (may be as many as 20 per lesson, depending on student, see B.1), practicing all possible combinations and repeating 5-20 times each combination.
- B. Student-Led Limits:
- 1. Observe student carefully, to know when mental "saturation" point is reached, indicating student should not be taught more Elements until another time.
- 2. At this point, stop imparting new information, and simply do Review as follows:
- C. Review: Keep random, arbitrary sequencing. If appropriate, use visuals, pointing quickly to each. Employ different examples of Element that are easy to understand, changing country/city names, people names, and words student already knows. Keep a list of everything taught, so proper testing may be done.
- D. Observation and Notation: Teacher should maintain a student list of words/phrases that are most difficult for that student. List is called "Special Attention List"
IV. Progress, from Lesson to Lesson:
- • LESSON REVIEW The first few minutes of each lesson are to review prior lesson(s).
- • GLOBAL REVIEW Transition from Lesson Review to a comprehensive review, which should always include items from the Special Attention List.
V. Advanced Concepts:
- • Intermediate and Advanced Students may skip some Element introduction as appropriate; become aware of student's language abilities, so they are not frustrated by too much review. If Student immediately shows recognition and knowledge, move to next Element.
- • Non-Standard Alphabets: Teaching Student to recognize letters/characters and reading words should employ same steps as in above Aspect I. and alphabet variations may be taught using Aspect III. Writing characters and words should initially be done manually, either on paper or whiteboard.
- • Country Accents: Any student at intermediate stages or higher should be made aware of subtle variations in pronunciation, which depend on geography within a country or from country to country.
It should be noted that an integral aspect of the Direct Method is varying the setting of teaching; try different scenarios using the same Element.
This makes the lessons more "real world," as it will bring some
confusing distractions to the student and employ organic variables
common in the culture and locale of language use.
Historical Context
The direct method was an answer to the dissatisfaction with the older grammar translation method, which teaches students grammar and vocabulary through direct translations and thus focuses on the written language.
There was an attempt to set up conditions that imitate mother tongue
acquisition, which is why the beginnings of these attempts were called
the natural method. At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries,
Sauveur and Franke proposed that language teaching should be undertaken
within the target-language system, which was the first stimulus for the
rise of the direct method.
The audio-lingual method was developed in an attempt to address some of the perceived weaknesses of the direct method.
* CONTENT BASED INSTRUCTION
Content-Based Instruction (CBI) is a significant approach in language education (Brinton, Snow, & Wesche, 1989). CBI is designed to provide second-language learners instruction in content and language.
Historically, the word content has changed its meaning in language teaching. Content used to refer to the methods of grammar-translation, audio-lingual methodology and vocabulary
or sound patterns in dialog form. Recently, content is interpreted as
the use of subject matter as a vehicle for second or foreign language
teaching/learning.
Benefits of content based instruction
1. Learners are exposed to a considerable amount of language through
stimulating content. Learners explore interesting content & are
engaged in appropriate language-dependant activities. Learning language
becomes automatic.
2. CBI supports contextualized learning; learners are taught useful
language that is embedded within relevant discourse contexts rather than
as isolated language fragments. Hence students make greater connections
with the language & what they already know.
3. Complex information is delivered through real life context for the
students to grasp well & leads to intrinsic motivation.
4. In CBI information is reiterated by strategically delivering
information at right time & situation compelling the students to
learn out of passion.
5. Greater flexibility & adaptability in the curriculum can be deployed as per the students interest.
Comparison to other approaches
The CBI approach is comparable to English for Specific Purposes
(ESP), which usually is for vocational or occupational needs or English
for Academic Purposes (EAP). The goal of CBI is to prepare students to
acquire the languages while using the context of any subject matter so
that students learn the language by using it within the specific
context. Rather than learning a language out of context, it is learned
within the context of a specific academic subject.
As educators realized that in order to successfully complete an
academic task, second language (L2) learners have to master both English
as a language form (grammar, vocabulary etc.) and how English is used in core content classes, they started to implement various approaches such as Sheltered instruction
and learning to learn in CBI classes. Sheltered instruction is more of a
teacher-driven approach that puts the responsibility on the teachers'
shoulders. This is the case by stressing several pedagogical
needs to help learners achieve their goals, such as teachers having
knowledge of the subject matter, knowledge of instructional strategies
to comprehensible and accessible content, knowledge of L2 learning
processes and the ability to assess cognitive, linguistic and social
strategies that students use to assure content comprehension while
promoting English academic development. Learning to learn
is more of a student-centered approach that stresses the importance of
having the learners share this responsibility with their teachers.
Learning to learn emphasizes the significant role that learning
strategies play in the process of learning.
Motivating students
Keeping students motivated and interested are two important factors underlying content-based instruction. Motivation
and interest are crucial in supporting student success with
challenging, informative activities that support success and which help
the student learn complex skills (Grabe & Stoller, 1997). When students are motivated and interested in the material they are learning, they make greater connections between topics, elaborations with learning material and can recall
information better (Alexander, Kulikowich, & Jetton, 1994: Krapp,
Hidi, & Renninger, 1992). In short, when a student is intrinsically motivated
the student achieves more. This in turn leads to a perception of
success, of gaining positive attributes which will continue a circular
learning pattern of success and interest. Krapp, Hidi and Renninger
(1992) state that, "situational interest, triggered by environmental
factors, may evoke or contribute to the development of long-lasting
individual interests" (p. 18). Because CBI is student centered, one of
its goals is to keep students interested and motivation high by
generating stimulating content instruction and materials.
Active student involvement
Because it falls under the more general rubric of communicative language teaching
(CLT), the CBI classroom is learner rather than teacher centered
(Littlewood, 1981). In such classrooms, students learn through doing and
are actively engaged in the learning
process. They do not depend on the teacher to direct all learning or to
be the source of all information. Central to CBI is the belief that
learning occurs not only through exposure to the teacher's input, but
also through peer input and interactions. Accordingly, students assume active, social roles in the classroom that involve interactive learning, negotiation,
information gathering and the co-construction of meaning (Lee and
VanPatten, 1995). William Glasser's "control theory" exemplifies his
attempts to empower students and give them voice by focusing on their
basic, human needs: Unless students are given power, they may exert what
little power they have to thwart learning and achievement through
inappropriate behavior and mediocrity. Thus, it is important for
teachers to give students voice, especially in the current educational
climate, which is dominated by standardization and testing (Simmons and
Page, 2010).
Conclusion
The integration of language & content teaching is perceived by
the European Commission as "an excellent way of making progress in a
foreign language". CBI effectively increases learners' English language
proficiency & teaches them the skills necessary for the success in
various professions. With CBI, learners gradually acquire greater
control of the English language, enabling them to participate more fully
in an increasingly complex academic & social environment.
* COMPETENCY BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING
Competency-Based Language Teaching (CBLT) focuses on what “learners are expected to do with the language”
(Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.141). This approach emerged in the
United States in the 1970s and can be described as “defining educational
goals in terms of precise measurable descriptions of the knowledge,
skills, and behaviors students should possess at the end of a course of
study” (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.141).
The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2000, p.246)
defines competency as “the ability to do sth well” and as “a skill that
you need in a particular job or for a particular task”.
Background
According to Richards & Rodgers (2001, p.141) “Competency-Based
Language Teaching (CBLT) is an application of the principles of
Competency-Based Education to language teaching”. In Competency-Based
Education (CBE) the focus is on the “outcomes or outputs of learning”.
By the end of the 1970s Competency-Based Language Teaching was mostly
used in “work-related and survival-oriented language teaching programs
for adults” (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.141). Since the 1990s, CBLT
has been seen as “the state-of-the-art approach to adult ESL”
(Auerbach, 1986, p.411) so that any refugee in the United States who
wished to receive federal assistance had to attend a competency-based
program (Auerbach, 1986, p.412) in which they learned a set of language
skills “that are necessary for individuals to function proficiently in
the society in which they live” (Grognet & Crandall, 1982, p.3).
Theory of Language and Learning
The major basis of CBLT is the “functional and interactional
perspective on the nature of language (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.
143) which means that language learning always needs to be connected to
the social context it is used in. Therefore, language is seen as “a
medium of interaction and communication between people” who want to
achieve “specific goals and purposes” (Richards & Rodgers, 2001,
p.143). This especially applies to situations in which the learner has
to fulfill a particular role with language skills which can be predicted
or determined for the relevant context (Richards & Rodgers, 2001,
p.143). In connection to this Competency-Based Language Teaching shares
the behaviorist view of learning that “certain life encounters call for
certain kinds of language” (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.143).
Another key aspect of both language and learning theory is the so called
“mosaic approach to language learning” (Richards & Rodgers, 2001,
p.143), which assumes that language can be divided into appropriate
parts and subparts. Communicative competence is then constructed from
these subparts put together in the correct order (Richards &
Rodgers, 2001, p.143). All these aspects together show that CBLT is in
some respects similar to Communicative Language Teaching (Richards &
Rodgers, 2001, p.143).
Syllabus
A syllabus for a competency-based framework clearly differs from the
traditional approach to developing a syllabus. Instead of selecting a
topic or field of knowledge that one is going to teach (e.g., British
History, American Literature, or poetry) and then choosing “concepts,
knowledge, and skills that constitute that field of knowledge” (Richards
& Rodgers, 2001, p.144), Competency-based Language Teaching “is
designed not around the notion of subject knowledge but around the
notion of competency” (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.144). Therefore,
the focus is on how the students can use the language instead of their
knowledge about the language. Schenck (1978) points out that the teacher
provides a list of competencies which the course is going to deal with,
and these are “typically required of students in life role
situations”.
The fact that CBLT is an outcome-based approach also influences
the syllabus, especially the kind of assessment which is used. In
contrast to “norm-referenced assessment” (Docking, 1994, p.16), which is
used in many other teaching approaches and methods, “criterion-based
assessment” (Docking, 1994, p.16) is essential for CBLT. Students have
to perform specific language skills which they have already learned
during the course (Docking, 1994, p.16). The competencies tested
“consist of a description of the essential skills, knowledge, attitudes,
and behaviors required for effective performance of a real-world task
or activity” (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.144). These
performance-criteria form the basis for the assessment.
Learning Activities
The learning activities used in CBLT can be described as
systematically designed activities to achieve a certain competence.
These activities are real-world tasks which “may be related to any
domain of life” (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.144) but especially to
survival-oriented and work-related situations in a new environment
(Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.144). Typical areas, for which such
competency-based activities have been developed, are for example Job
Application, Job Interview, or Work Schedules (Mrowicki, 1986). All
these areas “can be described as a collection of units of competencies”
which consist of “specific knowledge, thinking processes, attitudes, and
perceptual and physical skills” (Docking, 1994, p.11).
Eight Key Features
According to Auerbach (1986) there are eight key features which are essential for Competency-Based Language Teaching:
1. A focus on successful functioning in society which means that
language is taught in order to prepare the students for the different
demands of the world (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.146).
2. A focus on life skills to determine that language is always
taught as a medium of communication in concrete tasks in which specific
language forms/skills are required (Richards & Rodgers, 2001,
p.146).
3. Task- or performance-centered orientation. The focus is on
what the students can do with the language and certain behaviors instead
of knowledge of the language (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.146).
4. Modularized instruction emphasizes that the competencies which
are taught have to be systematically separated into manageable parts so
that both the teacher and students can handle the content and realize their progress (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.146).
5. Outcomes that are made explicit a priori. “Outcomes are public
knowledge, known and agreed upon by both learner and teacher” (Richards
& Rodgers, 2001, p.146). Therefore, the students clearly know what
behaviors and skills are expected of them (Richards & Rodgers, 2001,
p.146).
6. Continuous and ongoing assessment which means that the
students are tested before the course to determine which skills they
lack and after they have had instructions in that skill they are tested
again to ascertain whether they have achieved the necessary skills or
not (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.146).
7. Demonstrated mastery of performance objectives. The assessment
is based on the students’ performance of specific behaviors instead of
traditional paper-and-pencil-tests (Richards & Rodgers, 2001,
p.146).
8. Individualized, student-centered instruction. The instructions
given by the teacher are not time-based but the focus is on the
progress the individual students make at their own rate. Therefore, the
teacher has to concentrate on each individual students in order to
support them in those areas in which they lack competence (Richards
& Rodgers, 2001, p.146).
Role of Teacher
The role of the teacher in a competency-based framework is not
defined by specific terms. The teacher has to provide positive and
constructive feedback in order to help the students to improve their
skills. She/he needs to be aware of the learners’ needs so that
everybody feels welcome in class (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.146).
The different competencies dealt with in class require specific
instructions for the various learning activities. Thus the teacher has
to give clear orders and explanations to make sure that every student
understands the task they are going to deal with. But the teacher does
not push the students because the instructions are not time-based;
instead the student’s progress is most important (Richards &
Rodgers, 2001, p.146). Another task of the teacher in CBLT is to select
learning activities and to design a syllabus according to the competency
the students are going to acquire.
Role of Learner
The role of the learner in a competency-based framework is to decide
whether the competencies are useful and relevant for him/her (Richards
& Rodgers, 2001, p.146). This shows that the learner has an active
role in the classroom which is underlined by the fact that the students
are expected to perform the skills learned (Richards & Rodgers,
2001, p.146). The competencies the students will learn are clearly
defined and present in the public so that “the learner knows exactly
what needs to be learned” and for which purpose he/she has to use the
competencies (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.147). In this regard it is
vital that every competency is mastered one at a time because this
makes sure that the learners know what they have already learned and
what the next steps will look like (Richards & Rodgers, 2001,
p.147). Moreover, the students have to stay in the actual program until
they improve. After they mastered their skills, they move into a more
proficient group of students. The main goal of the learner in
Competency-Based Language Teaching is to be able to adapt and transfer
knowledge from one setting to another.
Materials
The materials the teacher chooses are mainly “sample texts and
assessment tasks that provide examples of texts and assessment tasks
that relate to the competency” (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.147).
These materials are used to provide the students with “the essential
skills, knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors required for effective
performance of a real-world task or activity” (Richards & Rodgers,
2001, p.144). A great variety of competencies should be improved by
these tasks. On the one hand, knowledge and learning competencies as
well as oral competencies are dealt with. On the other hand, the
materials include tasks to improve the reading and writing competencies
(Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.147).
Procedure
At the beginning of a course in a competency-based framework the
students have to go through an initial assessment, in which the teacher
determines the current proficiency level of the individual student.
After this the students are grouped on the basis of “their current
English proficiency level, their learning pace, their needs, and their
social goals for learning English” (Richards & Rodgers, 2001,
p.147). Furthermore, a course based on CBLT is divided into three
stages, which the students have to go through in order to successfully
finish the course (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.147). At Stages 1 and
2 the learners deal with twelve competencies which are related to
general language development (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.147). At
Stage 3 the students are grouped on the basis of their learning goals
and “competencies are defined according to the three syllabus strands of
Further Study, Vocational English, and Community Access” (Richards
& Rodgers, 2001, p.147).
Conclusion
There are both critics and supporters of Competency-Based Language
Teaching. According to Tollefson (1986) it is very difficult to develop
lists of competencies for every specific situation. This is due above
all to the fact that many areas in which people need certain
competencies are impossible to operationalise (Richards & Rodgers,
2001, p.148). Other researchers argue that describing an activity in
terms of a set of different competencies is not enough in order to deal
with the complexity of the activity as a whole (Richards & Rodgers,
2001, p.148).
But on the other hand, CBLT is gaining popularity in the whole world. It
is argued that through the clearly defined outcomes and the continuous
feedback in CBLT, the quality of assessment as well as the students’
learning and the teaching are improved (Docking, 1994, p.15). These
improvements can be seen on all educational levels, “from primary school
to university, and from academic studies to workplace training”
(Docking, 1994, p.15). Rylatt and Lohan (1997, p.18) point out that “the
business of improving learning competencies and skills will remain one
of the world’s fastest growing industries and priorities” in the future.
* COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING
Communicative language teaching (CLT), or the communicative approach, is an approach to language teaching that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of study.
Background
Societal influences
Communicative language teaching rose to prominence in the 1970s and
early 1980s as a result of many disparate developments in both Europe
and the United States. First, there was an increased demand for language learning, particularly in Europe. The advent of the European Common Market
led to widespread European migration, and consequently there was a
large population of people who needed to learn a foreign language for
work or for personal reasons.
At the same time, children were increasingly able to learn foreign
languages in school. The number of secondary schools offering languages
rose worldwide in the 1960s and 1970s as part of a general trend of
curriculum-broadening and modernization, and foreign-language study
ceased to be confined to the elite academies. In Britain, the
introduction of comprehensive schools meant that almost all children had the opportunity to study foreign languages.
This increased demand put pressure on educators to change their teaching methods. Traditional methods such as grammar translation
assumed that students were aiming for mastery of the target language,
and that students were willing to study for years before expecting to
use the language in real life. However, these assumptions were
challenged by adult learners who were busy with work, and by
schoolchildren who were less academically able. Educators realized that
to motivate these students an approach with a more immediate payoff was
necessary.
The trend of progressivism in education provided a further pressure for educators to change their methods.Progressivism holds that active learning is more effective than passive learning, and as this idea gained traction in schools there was a general shift
towards using techniques where students were more actively involved,
such as group work. Foreign-language education was no exception to this
trend, and teachers sought to find new methods that could better embody
this shift in thinking.
Academic influences
The development of communicative language teaching was also helped by
new academic ideas. In Britain, applied linguists began to doubt the
efficacy of situational language teaching,
the dominant method in that country at the time. This was partly in
response to Chomsky’s insights into the nature of language. Chomsky had
shown that the structural theories of language prevalent at the time
could not explain the creativity and variety evident in real
communication. In addition, British applied linguists such as Christopher Candlin and Henry Widdowson
began to see that a focus on structure was also not helping language
students. They saw a need for students to develop communicative skill
and functional competence in addition to mastering language structures.
In the United States, the linguist and anthropologist Dell Hymes developed the concept of communicative competence. This was a reaction to Chomsky’s concept of the linguistic competence of an ideal native speaker.Communicative competence redefined what it meant to “know” a language;
in addition to speakers having mastery over the structural elements of
language, according to communicative competence they must also be able
to use those structural elements appropriately in different social
situations. This is neatly summed up by Hymes’s statement, “There are rules of use without which the rules of grammar would be useless.”
Hymes did not make a concrete formulation of communicative competence,
but subsequent authors have tied the concept to language teaching,
notably Michael Canale.
Communicative syllabuses
An influential development in the history of communicative language teaching was the work of the Council of Europe
in creating new language syllabuses. Education was a high priority for
the Council of Europe, and they set out to provide syllabuses that would
meet the needs of European immigrants.Among the studies used by the council when designing the course was one by the British linguist, D. A. Wilkins,
that defined language using “notions” and “functions”, rather than more
traditional categories of grammar and vocabulary. Notional categories
include concepts such as time, location, frequency, and quantity, and
functional categories include communicative acts such as offers,
complaints, denials, and requests. These syllabuses were widely used.
Communicative language-learning materials were also developed in
Germany. There was a new emphasis on personal freedom in German
education at the time, an attitude exemplified in the philosophy of Jürgen Habermas.
To fulfill this goal, educators developed materials that allowed
learners to choose what they wanted to communicate freely. These
materials concentrated on the various different social meanings a given
item of grammar could have, and were structured in such a way that
learners could choose how to progress through the course themselves.
The materials were used in teacher training courses and workshops to
encourage teachers to change to using a communicative syllabus. Two
similar projects were also undertaken by Candlin at Lancaster University, and by Holec at the University of Nancy.
Meanwhile, at the University of Illinois,
there was a study that investigated the effects of the explicit
teaching of learning strategies to language learners. The study
encouraged learners to take risks while communicating, and to use
constructs other than rote memorized patterns. At the study’s
conclusion, students who were taught communicatively fared no worse on
grammatical tests than students that had been taught with traditional
methods, but they performed significantly better in tests of
communicative ability. This was the case even for beginners.
As a result of this study, supplemental communicative activities were
created for the French CRÉDIF course Voix et Visages de la France. These
materials focused on classroom autonomy, and learners were taught
various phrases they could use to negotiate meaning, such as “What’s the
word for …” and “I don’t understand”.
Outline
CLT is usually characterized as a broad approach to teaching, rather than as a teaching method
with a clearly defined set of classroom practices. As such, it is most
often defined as a list of general principles or features. One of the
most recognized of these lists is David Nunan’s (1991) five features of CLT:
- An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target language.
- The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation.
- The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language but also on the learning process itself.
- An enhancement of the learner’s own personal experiences as important contributing elements to classroom learning.
- An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activities outside the classroom.
These five features are claimed by practitioners of CLT to show that
they are very interested in the needs and desires of their learners as
well as the connection between the language as it is taught in their
class and as it used outside the classroom. Under this broad umbrella
definition, any teaching practice that helps students develop their communicative competence
in an authentic context is deemed an acceptable and beneficial form of
instruction. Thus, in the classroom CLT often takes the form of pair and
group work requiring negotiation and cooperation between learners,
fluency-based activities that encourage learners to develop their
confidence, role-plays in which students practise and develop language
functions, as well as judicious use of grammar and pronunciation focused
activities.
In the mid 1990s the Dogma 95 manifesto influenced language teaching through the Dogme language teaching
movement, who proposed that published materials can stifle the
communicative approach. As such the aim of the Dogme approach to
language teaching is to focus on real conversations about real subjects
so that communication is the engine of learning. This communication may
lead to explanation, but that this in turn will lead to further
communication.
Classroom activities
Classroom activities used in communicative language teaching can include the following:
- Role-play
- Interviews
- information gap
- Games
- Language exchanges
- Surveys
- Pair-work
- Learning by teaching
However, not all courses that utilize the Communicative Language
approach will restrict their activities solely to these. Some courses
will have the students take occasional grammar quizzes, or prepare at
home using non-communicative drills, for instance. William Glasser's
"control theory" exemplifies his attempts to empower students and give
them voice by focusing on their basic, human needs: Unless students are
given power, they may exert what little power they have to thwart
learning and achievement through inappropriate behavior and mediocrity.
Thus, it is important for teachers to give students voice, especially in
the current educational climate, which is dominated by standardization
and testing (Simmons and Page, 2010).
Critiques of CLT
One of the most famous attacks on communicative language teaching was offered by Michael Swan in the English Language Teaching Journal in 1985.
Henry Widdowson responded in defense of CLT, also in the ELT Journal
(1985 39(3):158-161). More recently other writers (e.g. Bax)
have critiqued CLT for paying insufficient attention to the context in
which teaching and learning take place, though CLT has also been
defended against this charge (e.g. Harmer 2003).
Often, the communicative approach is deemed a success if the teacher
understands the student. But, if the teacher is from the same region as
the student, the teacher will understand errors resulting from an
influence from their first language. Native speakers of the target
language may still have difficulty understanding them. This observation
may call for new thinking on and adaptation of the communicative
approach. The adapted communicative approach should be a simulation
where the teacher pretends to understand only what any regular speaker
of the target language would and reacts accordingly (Hattum 2006).
* COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING
Community language learning (CLL) is an approach in which
students work together to develop what aspects of a language they would
like to learn. The teacher acts as a counsellor and a paraphraser, while the learner acts as a collaborator, although sometimes this role can be changed.
Examples of these types of communities have recently arisen with the
explosion of educational resources for language learning on the Web.
Background
The CLL method was developed by Charles A. Curran, a professor of psychology at Loyola University in Chicago.[1]
This method refers to two roles: that of the know-er (teacher) and
student (learner). Also the method draws on the counseling metaphor and
refers to these respective roles as a counselor and a client. According
to Curran, a counselor helps a client understand his or her own problems
better by 'capturing the essence of the clients concern ...[and]
relating [the client's] affect to cognition...;' in effect,
understanding the client and responding in a detached yet considerate
manner.
To restate, the counselor blends what the client feels and what he is
learning in order to make the experience a meaningful one. Often, this
supportive role requires greater energy expenditure than an 'average'
teacher.
Methods
Natural Approach
The foreign language learner's tasks, according to CLL are (1) to
apprehend the sound system of the language (2) assign fundamental
meanings to individual lexical units and (3) construct a basic grammar.
In these three steps, the CLL resembles the Natural Approach to language teaching in which a learner is not expected to speak until he has achieved some basic level of comprehension.
There are 5 stages of development in this method.
- “Birth” stage: feeling of security and belonging are established.
- As the learners' ability improve, they achieve a measure of independence from the parent.
- Learners can speak independently.
- The learners are secure enough to take criticism and being corrected.
- The child becomes an adult and becomes the know-er.
Online Communities
A new wave of Community Learning Languages have come into place with the internet growth and the boom of social networking technologies. These online CLLs are social network services such as Papora (language education company), English, baby! and LiveMocha that take advantage of the Web 2.0
concept of information sharing and collaboration tools, for which users
can help other users to learn languages by direct communication or
mutual correction of proposed exercises.
Barriers in Community Language Learning
When learning a different language while in a multilingual community,
there are certain barriers that one definitely will encounter. The
reason for these barriers is that in language learning while in a multicultural
community, native and nonnative groups will think, act, and write in
different ways based on each of their own cultural norms. Research shows
that students in multicultural environments communicate less with those
not familiar with their culture. Long-term problems include that the
foreign speakers will have their own terms of expression combined into
the language native to the area, which oftentimes makes for awkward
sentences to a native speaker. Native students tend to develop an
exclusive attitude toward the nonnative speaker because they feel
threatened when they do not understand the foreign language. Short-term
problems include the fact that native students will usually lack
in-depth knowledge of the nonnative cultures, which makes them more
likely to be unwilling to communicate with the foreign speakers. Because
these foreign students grew up and were educated in a totally different
cultural environment, their ideologies, identities and logic that form
in the early age cause different ways of expressing ideas both in
written and spoken form. They will have to modify and redefine their
original identities when they enter a multicultural environment (Shen,
459). This is no easy task. Consequentially, a low-level of social
involvement and enculturation will occur for both native and nonnative
speakers in the community.
* CONTEXTUAL TEACHING LEARNING
Contextual Learning is based on a constructivist theory of teaching and learning.
Learning takes place when teachers are able to present information in a
way that students are able to construct meaning based on their own
experiences. Contextual learning experiences include internships, service learning, and study abroad programs, among others.
Contextual learning has the following characteristics:
- emphasizing problem solving
- recognizing that teaching and learning need to occur in multiple contexts
- assisting students in learning how to monitor their learning and thereby become self-regulated learners
- anchoring teaching in the diverse life context of students
- encouraging students to learn from each other
- employing authentic assessment
Key Elements
Current perspectives on what it means for learning to be contextualized include
- situated cognition- all learning is applied knowledge
- social cognition- intrapersonal constructs
- distributed cognition- constructs that are continually shaped by other people and things outside the individual
Constructivist learning theory maintains that learning is a process of constructing meaning from experience Contextual
learning may be useful for child development if it provides learning
experiences in a context in which children are interested and motivated.
Various experiential learning theorists have contributed to an
understanding of contextual learning.
Benefits of contextual learning
- Both direct instruction and constructivist activities can be compatible and effective in the achievement of learning goals.
- Increasing one’s efforts results in more ability. This theory opposes the notion that one’s aptitude is unchangeable. Striving for learning goals motivates an individual to be engaged in activities with a commitment to learning.
- Children learn the standards values, and knowledge of society by raising questions and accepting challenges to find solutions that are not immediately apparent. Other learning processes are explaining concepts, justifying their reasoning and seeking information. Therefore, learning is a social process which requires social and cultural factors to be considered during instructional planning. This social nature of learning also drives the determination of the learning goals.
- Knowledge and learning are situated in particular physical and social context. A range of settings may be used such as the home, the community, and the workplace, depending on the purpose of instruction and the intended learning goals.
- Knowledge may be viewed as distributed or stretched over the individual, other persons, and various artifacts such as physical and symbolic tools and not solely as a property of individuals. Thus, people, as an integral part of the learning process, must share knowledge and tasks.
* COOPERATIVE LEARNING
Cooperative learning is an approach to organizing classroom
activities into academic and social learning experiences. It differs
from group work, and it has been described as "structuring positive
interdependence."
Students must work in groups to complete tasks collectively toward
academic goals. Unlike individual learning, which can be competitive in
nature, students learning cooperatively capitalize on one another’s
resources and skills (asking one another for information, evaluating one
another’s ideas, monitoring one another’s work, etc.).Furthermore, the teacher's role changes from giving information to facilitating students' learning.
Everyone succeeds when the group succeeds. Ross and Smyth (1995)
describe successful cooperative learning tasks as intellectually
demanding, creative, open-ended, and involve higher order thinking
tasks.Five essential elements are identified for the successful incorporation of cooperative learning in the classroom.
History
Prior to World War II, social theorists such as Allport, Watson,
Shaw, and Mead began establishing cooperative learning theory after
finding that group work was more effective and efficient in quantity,
quality, and overall productivity when compared to working alone. However, it wasn’t until 1937 when researchers May and Doob
found that people who cooperate and work together to achieve shared
goals, were more successful in attaining outcomes, than those who
strived independently to complete the same goals. Furthermore, they
found that independent achievers had a greater likelihood of displaying
competitive behaviours.
Philosophers and psychologists in the 1930s and 40’s such as John Dewey, Kurt Lewin, and Morton Deutsh also influenced the cooperative learning theory practiced today.
Dewey believed it was important that students develop knowledge and
social skills that could be used outside of the classroom, and in the
democratic society. This theory portrayed students as active recipients
of knowledge by discussing information and answers in groups, engaging
in the learning process together rather than being passive receivers of
information (e.g., teacher talking, students listening).
Lewin’s contributions to cooperative learning were based on the ideas
of establishing relationships between group members in order to
successfully carry out and achieve the learning goal. Deutsh’s
contribution to cooperative learning was positive social interdependence, the idea that the student is responsible for contributing to group knowledge.
Since then, David and Roger Johnson have been actively contributing
to the cooperative learning theory. In 1975, they identified that
cooperative learning promoted mutual liking, better communication, high
acceptance and support, as well as demonstrated an increase in a variety
of thinking strategies among individuals in the group.
Students who showed to be more competitive lacked in their interaction
and trust with others, as well as in their emotional involvement with
other students.
In 1994 Johnson and Johnson published the 5 elements (positive
interdependence, individual accountability, face-to-face interaction,
social skills, and processing) essential for effective group learning,
achievement, and higher-order social, personal and cognitive skills
(e.g., problem solving, reasoning, decision-making, planning,
organizing, and reflecting.
Types
Formal cooperative learning
is structured, facilitated, and monitored by the educator over time and
is used to achieve group goals in task work (e.g. completing a unit).
Any course material or assignment can be adapted to this type of
learning, and groups can vary from 2-6 people with discussions lasting
from a few minutes up to an entire period. Types of formal cooperative
learning strategies include:
- The jigsaw technique
- Assignments that involve group problem solving and decision making
- Laboratory or experiment assignments
- Peer review work (e.g. editing writing assignments).
Having experience and developing skill with this type of learning often facilitates informal and base learning.Jigsaw activities are wonderful because the student assumes the role of
the teacher on a given topic and is in charge of teaching the topic to a
classmate. The idea is that if students can teach something, they have
already learned the material.
Informal cooperative learning
incorporates group learning with passive teaching by drawing attention
to material through small groups throughout the lesson or by discussion
at the end of a lesson, and typically involves groups of two (e.g.
turn-to-your-partner discussions). These groups are often temporary and
can change from lesson to lesson (very much unlike formal learning where
2 students may be lab partners throughout the entire semester
contributing to one another’s knowledge of science).
Discussions typically have four components that include formulating a
response to questions asked by the educator, sharing responses to the
questions asked with a partner, listening to a partner’s responses to
the same question, and creating a new well-developed answer. This type
of learning enables the student to process, consolidate, and retain more
information.
In group-based cooperative learning, these peer groups gather
together over the long term (e.g. over the course of a year, or several
years such as in high school or post-secondary studies) to develop and
contribute to one another’s knowledge mastery on a topic by regularly
discussing material, encouraging one another, and supporting the
academic and personal success of group members.
Base group learning
(e.g., a long term study group) is effective for learning complex
subject matter over the course or semester and establishes caring,
supportive peer relationships, which in turn motivates and strengthens
the student’s commitment to the group’s education while increasing
self-esteem and self-worth. Base group approaches also make the students
accountable to educating their peer group in the event that a member
was absent for a lesson. This is effective both for individual learning,
as well as social support.
Elements
Brown & Ciuffetelli Parker (2009) and Siltala (2010) discuss the 5 basic and essential elements to cooperative learning:
- Positive interdependence
- Students must fully participate and put forth effort within their group
- Each group member has a task/role/responsibility therefore must believe that they are responsible for their learning and that of their group
- Face-to-face promotive interaction
- Members promote each other's success
- Students explain to one another what they have or are learning and assist one another with understanding and completion of assignments
- Individual and group accountability
- Each student must demonstrate mastery of the content being studied
- Each student is accountable for their learning and work, therefore eliminating “social loafing”
- Social skills
- Social skills that must be taught in order for successful cooperative learning to occur
- Skills include effective communication, interpersonal and group skills
- Leadership
- Decision-making
- Trust-building
- Communication
- Conflict-management skills
- Group processing
- Every so often groups must assess their effectiveness and decide how it can be improved
In order for student achievement to improve considerably, two characteristics must be present:
- When designing cooperative learning tasks and reward structures, individual responsibility and accountability must be identified. Individuals must know exactly what their responsibilities are and that they are accountable to the group in order to reach their goal.
- All group members must be involved in order for the group to complete the task. In order for this to occur each member must have a task that they are responsible for which cannot be completed by any other group member.
Cooperative Learning Techniques
There are a great number of cooperative learning techniques
available. Some cooperative learning techniques utilize student pairing,
while others utilize small groups of four or five students. Hundreds of
techniques have been created into structures to use in any content
area. Among the easy to implement structures are Think-Pair-Share, Think-Pair-Write, variations of Round Robin, and the Reciprocal Teaching Technique. A well known cooperative learning technique is the Jigsaw, Jigsaw II and Reverse Jigsaw.
Originally developed by Frank T. Lyman (1981),
Think-Pair-Share allows for students to contemplate a posed question or
problem silently. The student may write down thoughts or simply just
brainstorm in his or her head. When prompted, the student pairs up with a
peer and discusses his or her idea(s) and then listens to the ideas of
his or her partner. Following pair dialogue, the teacher solicits
responses from the whole group.
Jigsaw
Students are members of two groups: home group and expert group. In
the heterogeneous home group, students are each assigned a different
topic. Once a topic has been identified, students leave the home group
and group with the other students with their assigned topic. In the new
group, students learn the material together before returning to their
home group. Once back in their home group, each student is accountable
for teaching his or her assigned topic.
Jigsaw II
Jigsaw II is Robert Slavin's
(1980) variation of Jigsaw in which members of the home group are
assigned the same material, but focus on separate portions of the
material. Each member must become an "expert" on his or her assigned
portion and teach the other members of the home group.
Reverse Jigsaw
This variation was created by Timothy Hedeen (2003)
It differs from the original Jigsaw during the teaching portion of the
activity. In the Reverse Jigsaw technique, students in the expert groups
teach the whole class rather than return to their home groups to teach
the content.
Reciprocal Teaching
Brown & Paliscar (1982) developed reciprocal teaching. It is a
cooperative technique that allows for student pairs to participate in a
dialogue about text. Partners take turns reading and asking questions of
each other, receiving immediate feedback. Such a model allows for
students to use important metacognitive techniques such as clarifying,
questioning, predicting, and summarizing. It embraces the idea that
students can effectively learn from each other.
The Williams
Students collaborate to answer a big question that is the learning
objective. Each group has differentiated questions that increases in
cognitive ability to allow students to progress and meet the learning
objective.
STAD (or Student-Teams-Achievement Divisions)
Students are placed in small groups (or teams).
The class in its entirety is presented with a lesson and the students
are subsequently tested. Individuals are graded on the team's
performance. Although the tests are taken individually, students are
encouraged to work together to improve the overall performance of the
group.
Research supporting cooperative learning
Research on cooperative learning demonstrated “overwhelmingly positive” results and confirmed that cooperative modes are cross-curricular.
Cooperative learning requires students to engage in group activities
that increase learning and adds other important dimensions. The positive outcomes include academic gains, improved race relations and increased personal and social development.
Students who fully participate in group activities, exhibit
collaborative behaviors, provide constructive feedback, and cooperate
with their groups have a higher likelihood of receiving higher test
scores and course grades at the end of the semester. Cooperative learning is an active pedagogy that fosters higher academic achievement.
Cooperative learning has also been found to increase attendance, time
on task, enjoyment of school and classes, motivation, and independence.
Benefits and applicability of cooperative learning:
- Students demonstrate academic achievement
- Cooperative learning methods are usually equally effective for all ability levels
- Cooperative learning is effective for all ethnic groups
- Student perceptions of one another are enhanced when given the opportunity to work with one another
- Cooperative learning increases self-esteem and self-concept
- Ethnic and physically/mentally handicapped barriers are broken down allowing for positive interactions and friendships to occur
Cooperative learning results in:
- Increased higher level reasoning
- Increased generation of new ideas and solutions
- Greater transfer of learning between situations
Cooperative learning is significant in business:
- Cooperative learning can be seen as a characteristic of innovative businesses
- The five stage division on cooperative learning creates a useful method of analyzing learning in innovative businesses
- Innovativity connected to cooperative learning seems to make the creation of innovations possible
Limitations
Cooperative Learning has many limitations that could cause the
process to be more complicated than first perceived. Sharan (2010)
describes the constant evolution of cooperative learning as a threat.
Due to the fact that cooperative learning is constantly changing, there
is a possibility that teachers may become confused and lack complete
understanding of the method. Teachers implementing cooperative learning
may also be challenged with resistance and hostility from students who
believe that they are being held back by their slower teammates or by
students who are less confident and feel that they are being ignored or
demeaned by their team.
Students often provide feedback in the success of the teamwork
experienced during cooperative learning experiences. Peer review and
evaluations may not reflect true experiences due to perceived
competition among peers. A confidential evaluation process may help to
increase evaluation strength.
* INQUIRY BASED LEARNING
Definition
Inquiry-based learning (IBL) is a project-oriented pedagogic strategy based on constructivist and socio-constructivist theories of learning (Eick & Reed, 2002).
“Inquiry
learning is not about memorizing facts - it is about formulation
questions and finding appropriate resolutions to questions and issues.
Inquiry can be a complex undertaking and it therefore requires dedicated
instructional design and support to facilitate that students experience
the excitement of solving a task or problem on their own. Carefully
designed inquiry learning environments can assist students in the
process of transforming information and data into useful knowledge” (Computer Supported Inquiry Learning, retrieved 18:31, 28 June 2007 (MEST).
Inquiry-based learning is often described as a cycle or a spiral,
which implies formulation of a question, investigation, creation of a
solution or an appropriate response, discussion and reflexion in
connexion with results (Bishop et al., 2004).
IBL is a student-centered and student-lead process. The purpose is to
engage the student in active learning, ideally based on their own
questions. Learning activities are organized in a cyclic way,
independently of the subject. Each question leads to the creation of new
ideas and other questions.
This learning process by exploration of the natural or the
constructed/social world leads the learner to questions and discoveries
in the seeking of new understandings. With this pedagogic strategy, children learn science by doing it (Aubé & David,2003). The main goal is conceptual change.
IBL is a socio-constructivist design because of collaborative
work within which the student finds resources, uses tools and resources
produced by inquiry partners. Thus, the student make progress by
work-sharing, talking and building on everyone's work.
Models
There are many models described in the literature. We shall present as an example the cyclic inquiry model presented on the inquiry page sponsored by "Chip" Bruce et. al of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UIUC).
Cyclic Inquiry model
The purpose of the UIUC inquiry model is the creation of new ideas and concepts, and their spreading in the classroom.
The Inquiry cycle is a process which engages students to ask and
answer questions on the basis of collected information and which should
lead to the creation of new ideas and concepts.
The activity often finishes by the creation of a document which tries to
answer the initial questions.
The cycle of inquiry has 5 global steps: Ask, Investigate,
Create, Discuss and Reflect. We will give an example for each step
using the "rainbow" example from Villavicencio (2000) who works on light
and colors every year with 4 or 5 years old children.
from: [The Inquiry Page]
During the preparation of the activity, teachers have to think about how many cycles to do, how to end the activity (at the Ask step): when/how to rephrase questions or answer them and express followup questions.
Ask
Ask begins with student's curiosity
about the world, ideally with their own questions. The teacher can
stimulate the curiosity of the student by giving an introduction talk
related to concepts that have to be acquired. It's important that
student formulate their own questions because they then can explicitly
express concepts related to the learning subject.
This step focuses on a problem or a question that students begin
to define. These questions are redefined again and again during the
cycle. Step's borders are blurred: a step is never completely left when
the student begins the next one.
Rainbow Scenario : The teacher gives some
mirrors to the children, so they can play with the sunlight which are
passing trough the classroom's windows. With these manipulations,
students can then formulate some questions about light and colors.
Investigate
Ask naturally leads to Investigate which should exploit
initial curiosity and lead to seek and create information. Students or
groups of students collect information, study, collect and exploit
resources, experiment, look, interview, draw,... They already can
redefine "the question", make it clearer or take another direction. Investigate is a self-motivating process totally owned by the active student.
Rainbow Scenario : Once questions have been
asked, the teacher gives to the children some prisms which allow to bend
the light and a Round Light Source (RLS), a big cylindrical lamp with
four colored windows through a light ray can pass. Then the children can
mix the colors and see the result of their mixed ray light on a screen.
They begin to collect information...
Create
Collected information begins to merge. Student start making links.
Here, ability to synthesize meaning is the spark which creates new
knowledge. Student may generate new thoughts, ideas and theories that
are not directly inspired by their own experience. They write them down
in some kind of report.
Rainbow Scenario : Some links are created from
collected information and children understand that rainbows have to be
created by this kind of phenomenon.
Discuss
At this point, students share their ideas with each other, and ask others about their own experiences and investigations.
Such knowledge-sharing is a community process of construction and they begin to understand the meaning of their investigation.
Comparing notes, discussing conclusions and sharing experiences are some examples of this active process.
Rainbow Scenario : children often and
spontaneously sit around the RLS. They discuss and share their newly
acquired knowledge with the purpose to understand the mix of colors.
Then, they are invited to share their findings with the rest of the
class, while the teacher takes notes on the blackboard.
Reflect
This step consists in taking time to look back. Think again about the
initial question, the path taken, and the actual conclusions.
Student look back and maybe take some new decisions: "Has a solution
been found ?", "did new questions appear?", "What could they ask
now ?",...
Rainbow Scenario : teacher and students take
time to look back at the concepts encountered during the earlier steps
of the activity. They try to synthesize and to engage further planning
on the basis of their recently acquired concepts.
Continuation
Once the first cycle is over, students are back the Ask step and they can choose between two options:
- Ask: a new cycle starts, fed by the new questions or reformulations of earlier ones. The teacher can create groups to stimulate discussions and interest.
- Answer: the activity is ending. The teacher has to finish it by broadening: The initial questions with their responses, the reformulated ones, new ones that appeared during the activity. Making a synthesis is always a better solution, even if this step is not the purpose of an entire cycle.
Rainbow Scenario : the teacher sets students free to
repeat their experiments or to try different things. Some students try
to replicate what their friends have done, others do the same things
with or without variants. A new cycle begins.
The advantage of this model is that it can be applied with lots
of student types and lots of matters. Moreover, the teacher can design
the scenario by focusing on a part of the cycle or another. He can use
one, few or more cycle.
Most often, a single cycle (formal or not) is not enough and because of
that, this model is often drawn in a spiral shape.
Other models
The model we presented above represents probably the dominant view of
inquiry learning. It combines more radical open-ended
socio-constructivist principles (Discovery learning) with a model of guidance. As opposed to Learning by design, most inquiry-based models do advocate opportunistic (i.e. adaptive) planning by the teacher. Other models include
- knowledge-building community model (a much more open ended version, geared toward "design mode")
- Scaffolded knowledge integration
- Learning by design
- Computer simulation (The "Dutch school")
* LEXICAL APPROACH
The lexical approach is a method of teaching foreign languages
described by M. Lewis in the 1990s. The basic concept on which this
approach rests is the idea that an important part of learning a language
consists of being able to understand and produce lexical phrases as chunks. Students are thought to be able to perceive patterns of language (grammar) as well as have meaningful set uses of words at their disposal when they are taught in this way.
In the lexical approach, instruction focuses on fixed expressions
that occur frequently in dialogues, which Lewis claims make up a larger
part of discourse than unique phrases and sentences. Vocabulary is prized over grammar per se in this approach. The teaching of chunks and set phrases has become common in English as a second or foreign language, though this is not necessarily primarily due to the Lexical Approach.
Syllabus
The lexical syllabus is a form of the propositional paradigm that
takes 'word' as the unit of analysis and content for syllabus design.
Various vocabulary selection studies can be traced back to the 1920s and
1930s (West 1926; Ogden 1930; Faucet et al. 1936), and recent advances
in techniques for the computer analysis of large databases of authentic
text have helped to resuscitate this line of work. The modern lexical
syllabus is discussed in Sinclair & Renouf (1988), who state that
the main benefit of a lexical syllabus is that it emphasises utility -
the student learns that which is most valuable because it is most
frequent. Related work on collocation is reported by Sinclair (1987) and
Kennedy (1989), and the Collins COBUILD English Course (Willis &
Willis 1988) is cited as an exemplary pedagogic implementation of the
work, though "in fact, however, the COBUILD textbooks utilise one of the
more complex hybrid syllabi in current ESL texts" (Long & Crookes
1993:23).
Sinclair & Renouf (1988:155) find that (as with other synthetic
syllabi), claims made for the lexical syllabus are not supported by
evidence, and the assertion that the lexical syllabus is "an independent
syllabus, unrelated by any principles to any methodology" (Sinclair et
al. 1988:155) is subject to the criticism levelled by Brumfit against
notional functional syllabi, i.e. that it (in this case, deliberately)
takes no cognisance of how a second language is learned. Since these
observations were made, however, Willis (1990) and Lewis (1993) have
gone some way to provide such a theoretical justification.
* SUSTAINED SILENT READING
Sustained silent reading (SSR) is a form of school-based recreational reading, or free voluntary reading,
where students read silently in a designated time period every day in
school. An underlying assumption of SSR is that students learn to read
by reading constantly. Successful models of SSR typically allow students
to select their own books and require neither testing for comprehension
nor book reports. Schools have implemented SSR under a variety of
names, such as "Drop Everything and Read (DEAR)" or "Free Uninterrupted
Reading (FUR)".
Value of Sustained silent reading
Advocates' perspective
According to advocates, such as Stephen Krashen, SSR has been shown to lead to gains in several literacy domains, including comprehension, spelling and increased vocabulary.
Advocates also point out that students in SSR programs have more
positive attitudes toward reading than students who do not participate
in SSR programs.
National Reading Panel analysis of sustained silent reading studies
The National Reading Panel
(NRP) in the United States meta-analyzed all quasi-experimental and
experimental studies of SSR and challenged the claim that SSR has
positive effects. The panel stated that the literature contained
insufficient numbers of quasi-experimental or experimental studies on
SSR to validate its use as a sound educational practice. The panel also
noted that the absence of quantitative evidence was not evidence against
the practice in itself. They recommended further study of SSR.
Sustained silent reading practices
A range of practices have been associated with SSR, and some
advocates suggest that teacher models of reading behavior (i.e.,
teachers read while the students read), a long term commitment to SSR,
availability of multiple level, high interest texts, and a sense of
reading community are particularly relevant.
* TASK -BASED INSTRUCTION
Task-based language learning (TBLL), also known as task-based language teaching (TBLT) or task-based instruction
(TBI) focuses on the use of authentic language and on asking students
to do meaningful tasks using the target language. Such tasks can include
visiting a doctor, conducting an interview, or calling customer service
for help. Assessment is primarily based on task outcome (in other words
the appropriate completion of real world tasks) rather than on accuracy
of prescribed language forms. This makes TBLL especially popular for
developing target language fluency and student confidence. As such TBLL
can be considered a branch of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT).
TBLL was popularized by N. Prabhu while working in Bangalore, India.
Prabhu noticed that his students could learn language just as easily
with a non-linguistic problem as when they were concentrating on
linguistic questions. Major scholars who have done research in this area
include Teresa P. Pica and Michael Long
According to Jane Willis, TBLL consists of the pre-task, the task cycle, and the language focus.
The components of a Task are:
- Goals and objectives
- Input
- Activities
- Teacher role
- learner role
- Settings
Background
Task-based language learning has its origins in communicative language teaching,
and is a subcategory of it. Educators adopted task-based language
learning for a variety of reasons. Some moved to task-based syllabi in
an attempt to make language in the classroom truly communicative, rather
than the pseudo-communication that results from classroom activities
with no direct connection to real-life situations. Others, like Prabhu
in the Bangalore Project,
thought that tasks were a way of tapping into learners' natural
mechanisms for second-language acquisition, and weren't concerned with
real-life communication per se.
Definition of a Task
According to Rod Ellis, a task has four main characteristics:
- A task involves a primary focus on (pragmatic) meaning.
- A task has some kind of ‘gap’ (Prabhu identified the three main types as information gap, reasoning gap, and opinion gap).
- The participants choose the linguistic resources needed to complete the task.
- A task has a clearly defined, non-linguistic outcome.
In practice
The core of the lesson or project is, as the name suggests, the task.
Teachers and curriculum developers should bear in mind that any
attention to form, i.e. grammar or vocabulary, increases the likelihood
that learners may be distracted from the task itself and become
preoccupied with detecting and correcting errors and/or looking up
language in dictionaries and grammar references. Although there may be
several effective frameworks for creating a task-based learning lesson,
here is a basic outline:
Pre-task
In the pre-task, the teacher will present what will be expected of
the students in the task phase. Additionally, in the "weak" form of TBLL, the teacher may prime the students with key vocabulary or
grammatical constructs, although this can mean that the activity is, in
effect, more similar to the more traditional present-practise-produce
(PPP) paradigm. In "strong" task-based learning lessons, learners are
responsible for selecting the appropriate language for any given context
themselves. The instructor may also present a model of the task by
either doing it themselves or by presenting picture, audio, or video
demonstrating the task.
Task
During the task phase, the students perform the task, typically in
small groups, although this is dependent on the type of activity. And
unless the teacher plays a particular role in the task, then the
teacher's role is typically limited to one of an observer or
counselor—thus the reason for it being a more student-centered
methodology.
Review
If learners have created tangible linguistic products, e.g. text, montage, presentation, audio or video recording, learners can review
each others' work and offer constructive feedback. If a task is set to
extend over longer periods of time, e.g. weeks, and includes iterative
cycles of constructive activity followed by review, TBLL can be seen as
analogous to Project-based learning.
Types of task
According to N. S. Prabhu, there are three main categories of task; information-gap, reasoning-gap, and opinion-gap.
Information-gap activity, which involves a transfer of given
information from one person to another – or from one form to another, or
from one place to another – generally calling for the decoding or
encoding of information from or into language. One example is pair work
in which each member of the pair has a part of the total information
(for example an incomplete picture) and attempts to convey it verbally
to the other. Another example is completing a tabular representation
with information available in a given piece of text. The activity often
involves selection of relevant information as well, and learners may
have to meet criteria of completeness and correctness in making the
transfer.
Reasoning gap Reasoning-gap activity, which involves deriving
some new information from given information through processes of
inference, deduction, practical reasoning, or a perception of
relationships or patterns. One example is working out a teacher’s
timetable on the basis of given class timetables. Another is deciding
what course of action is best (for example cheapest or quickest) for a
given purpose and within given constraints. The activity necessarily
involves comprehending and conveying information, as in information-gap
activity, but the information Teaching to be conveyed is not identical
with that initially comprehended. There is a piece of reasoning which
connects the two.
Opinion gap Opinion-gap activity, which involves identifying
and articulat-ing a personal preference, feeling, or attitude in
response to a given situation. One example is story completion; another
is taking part in the discussion of a social issue. The activity may
involve using factual information and formulating arguments to justify
one’s opinion, but there is no objective procedure for demonstrating
outcomes as right or wrong, and no reason to expect the same outcome
from different individuals or on different occasions.
Reception
According to Jon Larsson, in considering problem based learning for language learning, i.e. task based language learning:
- ...one of the main virtues of PBL is that it displays a significant advantage over traditional methods in how the communicative skills of the students are improved. The general ability of social interaction is also positively affected. These are, most will agree, two central factors in language learning. By building a language course around assignments that require students to act, interact and communicate it is hopefully possible to mimic some of the aspects of learning a language “on site”, i.e. in a country where it is actually spoken. Seeing how learning a language in such an environment is generally much more effective than teaching the language exclusively as a foreign language, this is something that would hopefully be beneficial.
Larsson goes on to say:
- Another large advantage of PBL is that it encourages students to gain a deeper sense of understanding. Superficial learning is often a problem in language education, for example when students, instead of acquiring a sense of when and how to use which vocabulary, learn all the words they will need for the exam next week and then promptly forget them.
- In a PBL classroom this is combatted by always introducing the vocabulary in a real-world situation, rather than as words on a list, and by activating the student; students are not passive receivers of knowledge, but are instead required to actively acquire the knowledge. The feeling of being an integral part of their group also motivates students to learn in a way that the prospect of a final examination rarely manages to do.
Task-based learning is advantageous to the student because it is more
student-centered, allows for more meaningful communication, and often
provides for practical extra-linguistic skill building. As the tasks are
likely to be familiar to the students (e.g.: visiting the doctor),
students are more likely to be engaged, which may further motivate them
in their language learning.
According to Jeremy Harmer, tasks promote language acquisition
through the types of language and interaction they require. Harmer says
that although the teacher may present language in the pre-task, the
students are ultimately free to use what grammar constructs and
vocabulary they want. This allows them, he says, to use all the language
they know and are learning, rather than just the 'target language' of
the lesson.
On the other hand, according to Loschky and Bley-Vroman, tasks can also
be designed to make certain target forms 'task-essential,' thus making
it communicatively necessary for students to practice using them. In terms of interaction, information gap tasks in particular have been shown to promote negotiation of meaning and output modification.
According to Plews and Zhao, task-based language learning can suffer
in practice from poorly informed implementation and adaptations that
alter its fundamental nature. They say that lessons are frequently
changed to be more like traditional teacher-led presentation-practice-production lessons than task-based lessons.
* TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE
The method is an example of the comprehension approach to language teaching. Listening serves a dual purpose; it is both a means of understanding messages in the language being learned, and a means of learning the structure of the language itself. Grammar is not taught explicitly, but is induced from the language input.
Asher developed TPR as a result of his experiences observing young children learning their first language. He noticed that interactions between parents and children often took the form of speech from the parent followed by a physical response from the child. Asher made three hypotheses based on his observations: first, that language is learned primarily by listening; second, that language learning must engage the right hemisphere of the brain; and third, that learning language should not involve any stress.
Total physical response is often used alongside other methods and techniques. It is popular with beginners and with young learners, although it can be used with students of all levels and all age groups.
James Asher developed the total physical response method as a result of his observation of the language development of young children. Asher saw that most of the interactions that young children experience with parents or other adults combine both verbal and physical aspects. The child responds physically to the speech of the parent, and the parent reinforces the child’s responses through further speech. This creates a positive feedback loop between the parent’s speech and the child’s actions. Asher also observed that young children typically spend a long time listening to language before ever attempting to speak, and that they can understand and react to utterances that are much more complex than those they can produce themselves.
From his experiences, Asher outlined three main hypotheses about learning second languages that are embodied in the total physical response method. The first is that the brain is naturally predisposed to learn language through listening. Specifically, Asher says that learners best internalize language when they respond with physical movement to language input. Asher hypothesizes that speech develops naturally and spontaneously after learners internalize the target language through input, and that it should not be forced.In Asher’s own words:
A reasonable hypothesis is that the brain and the nervous system are biologically programmed to acquire language, either the first or the second in a particular sequence and in a particular mode. The sequence is listening before speaking and the mode is to synchronise language with the individual’s body.The second of Asher’s hypotheses is that effective language learning must engage the right hemisphere of the brain. Physical movement is controlled primarily by the right hemisphere, and Asher sees the coupling of movement with language comprehension as the key to language acquisition. He says that left-hemisphere learning should be avoided, and that the left hemisphere needs a great deal of experience of right-hemisphere-based input before natural speech can occur.
Asher’s third hypothesis is that language learning should not involve any stress, as stress and negative emotions inhibit the natural language-learning process. He regards the stressful nature of most language-teaching methods as one of their major weaknesses. Asher recommends that teachers focus on meaning and physical movement to avoid stress.
The main text on total physical response is James Asher’s Learning Another Language through Actions, first published in 1977.
Principles
Total physical response is an example of the comprehension approach to language teaching. Methods in the comprehension approach emphasize the importance of listening on language development, and do not require spoken output in the early stages of learning. In total physical response, students are not forced to speak. Instead, teachers wait until students acquire enough language through listening that they start to speak spontaneously. At the beginning stages of instruction students can respond to the instructor in their native language.
While the majority of class time in total physical response is spent on listening comprehension, the ultimate goal of the method is to develop oral fluency. Asher sees developing listening comprehension skills as the most efficient way of developing spoken language skills.
Lessons in TPR are organized around grammar, and in particular around the verb. Instructors issue commands based on the verbs and vocabulary to be learned in that lesson.However, the primary focus in lessons is on meaning, which distinguishes TPR from other grammar-based methods such as grammar-translation.
Grammar is not explicitly taught, but is learned by induction. Students are expected to subconsciously acquire the grammatical structure of the language through exposure to spoken language input, in addition to decoding the messages in the input to find their meaning. This approach to listening is called codebreaking.
Total physical response is both a teaching technique and a philosophy of language teaching. Teachers do not have to limit themselves to TPR techniques to teach according to the principles of the total physical response method.
Because the students are only expected to listen and not to speak, the teacher has the sole responsibility for deciding what input students hear.
Procedure
The majority of class time in TPR lessons is spent doing drills in which the instructor gives commands using the imperative mood. Students respond to these commands with physical actions. Initially, students learn the meaning of the commands they hear by direct observation. After they learn the meaning of the words in these commands, the teacher issues commands that use novel combinations of the words the students have learned.
Instructors limit the number of new vocabulary items given to students at any one time. This is to help students differentiate the new words from those previously learned, and to facilitate integration with their existing language knowledge. Asher suggests that students can learn between 12 and 36 words for every hour of instruction, depending on their language level and class size.
While drills using the imperative are the mainstay of total physical response classes, teachers can use other activities as well. Some typical other activities are role plays and slide presentations. However, beginners are not made to learn conversational dialogs until 120 hours into their course.
There is little error correction in TPR. Asher advises teachers to treat learners’ mistakes the same way a parent would treat their children’s. Errors made by beginning-level students are usually overlooked, but as students become more advanced teachers may correct more of their errors. This is similar to parents raising their children; as children get older parents tend to correct their grammatical mistakes more often.
According to Asher, TPR lesson plans should contain the detailed commands that the teacher intends to use. He says, “It is wise to write out the exact utterances you will be using and especially the novel commands because the action is so fast-moving there is usually not time for you to create spontaneously.”
Teaching materials
Total physical response lessons typically use a wide variety of realia, posters, and props. Teaching materials are not compulsory, and for the very first lessons they may not be used. As students progress in ability the teacher may begin to use objects found in the classroom such as furniture or books, and later may use word charts, pictures, and realia.
There are a number of specialized TPR teaching products available, including student kits developed by Asher and an interactive CD-ROM for students to practice with privately.
Research
Asher conducted a large number of scientific studies to test and refine his hypotheses and the teaching practices in total physical response. When testing children and adults learning Russian, Asher and Price found that the adults outperformed the children.
Reception
According to the Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning, TPR is often criticized as being only suitable for beginning students. However, the encyclopedia goes on to note that there are several publications available about how to use TPR with intermediate and advanced students.
According to its proponents, total physical response has a number of advantages: Students enjoy getting out of their chairs and moving around. Simple TPR activities do not require a great deal of preparation on the part of the teacher. TPR is aptitude-free, working well with a mixed ability class, and with students having various disabilities.[17] It is good for kinesthetic learners who need to be active in the class. Class size need not be a problem, and it works effectively for children and adults.
However, it is recognized that TPR is most useful for beginners, though it can be used at higher levels where preparation becomes an issue for the teacher. It does not give students the opportunity to express their own thoughts in a creative way. Further, it is easy to overuse TPR-- "Any novelty, if carried on too long, will trigger adaptation." It can be a challenge for shy students. Additionally, the nature of TPR places an unnaturally heavy emphasis on the use of the imperative mood, that is to say commands such as sit down and stand up. These features are of limited utility to the learner, and can lead to a learner appearing rude when attempting to use his new language. As a TPR class progresses, group activities and descriptions can extend basic TPR concepts into full communication situations.
Because of its participatory approach, TPR may also be a useful alternative teaching strategy for students with dyslexia or related learning disabilities, who typically experience difficulty learning foreign languages with traditional classroom instruction.
Influence
Teachers who use TPR typically use it together with a variety of other activities and techniques.It is most often used for introducing new vocabulary.This is in line with Asher’s recommendations for using the method.
Blaine Ray, a Spanish language teacher, added stories to TPR to help students acquire non-physical language creating the foundation of the method known as Teaching Proficiency through Reading and Storytelling (TPRS) built on Stephen Krashen's theories of language acquisition.
* PROJECT BASED LEARNING
Project-based learning is considered an alternative to paper-based, rote memorization, teacher-led classrooms. Proponents of project-based learning cite numerous benefits to the implementation of these strategies in the classroom including a greater depth of understanding of concepts, broader knowledge base, improved communication and interpersonal/social skills, enhanced leadership skills, increased creativity, and improved writing skills.
John Dewey initially promoted the idea of "learning by doing." In My Pedagogical Creed (1897) Dewey enumerated his beliefs regarding education: "The teacher is not in the school to impose certain ideas or to form certain habits in the child, but is there as a member of the community to select the influences which shall affect the child and to assist him in properly responding to these.......I believe, therefore, in the so-called expressive or constructive activities as the centre of correlation."(Dewey, 1897) Educational research has advanced this idea of teaching and learning into a methodology known as "project-based learning." Blumenfeld & Krajcik (2006)cite studies by Marx et al., 2004, Rivet & Krajcki, 2004 and William & Linn, 2003 and state that "research has demonstrated that student in project-based learning classrooms get higher scores than students in traditional classroom."
Project-based learning has been associated with the "situated learning" perspective of James G. Greeno (2006) and on the constructivist theories of Jean Piaget. A more precise description of the processes of PBL given by Blumenfeld et al. says that, "Project-based learning is a comprehensive perspective focused on teaching by engaging students in investigation. Within this framework, students pursue solutions to nontrivial problems by asking and refining questions, debating ideas, making predictions, designing plans and/or experiments, collecting and analyzing data, drawing conclusions, communicating their ideas and findings to others, asking new questions, and creating artifacts." (Blumenfeld, et al., 1991) The basis of PBL lies in the authenticity or real-life application of the research. Students working as a team are given a "driving question" to respond to or answer, then directed to create an artifact (or artifacts) to present their gained knowledge. Artifacts may include a variety of media such as writings, art, drawings, three-dimensional representations, videos, photography, or technology-based presentations.
Project-based learning is not without its opponents, however; in Peer Evaluation in Blended Team Project-Based Learning: What Do Students Find Important? Hye-Jung & Cheolil (2012) describe social loafing as a negative aspect of collaborative learning. Social loafing may include insufficient performances by some team members as well as a lowering of expected standards of performance by the group as a whole to maintain congeniality amongst members. These authors said that because teachers tend to grade the finished product only, the social dynamics of the assignment may escape the teacher's notice.
Project-based learning emphasizes learning activities that are long-term, interdisciplinary and student-centered. Unlike traditional, teacher-led classroom activities, students often must organize their own work and manage their own time in a project-based class. Project-based instruction differs from traditional inquiry by its emphasis on students' collaborative or individual artifact construction to represent what is being learned.
Elements
The core idea of project-based learning is that real-world problems capture students' interest and provoke serious thinking as the students acquire and apply new knowledge in a problem-solving context. The teacher plays the role of facilitator, working with students to frame worthwhile questions, structuring meaningful tasks, coaching both knowledge development and social skills, and carefully assessing what students have learned from the experience. Typical projects present a problem to solve (What is the best way to reduce the pollution in the schoolyard pond?) or a phenomenon to investigate (What causes rain?).
Comprehensive Project-based Learning:
- is organized around an open-ended driving question or challenge.
- creates a need to know essential content and skills.
- requires inquiry to learn and/or create something new.
- requires critical thinking, problem solving, collaboration, and various forms of communication, often known as "21st Century Skills."
- allows some degree of student voice and choice.
- incorporates feedback and revision.
- results in a publicly presented product or performance.
Although projects are the primary vehicle for instruction in project-based learning, there are no commonly shared criteria for what constitutes an acceptable project. Projects vary greatly in the depth of the questions explored, the clarity of the learning goals, the content and structure of the activity, and guidance from the teacher. The role of projects in the overall curriculum is also open to interpretation. Projects can guide the entire curriculum (more common in charter or other alternative schools) or simply comprise of a few hands-on activities. They might be multidisciplinary (more likely in elementary schools) or single-subject (commonly science and math). Some projects involve the whole class, while others are done in small groups or individually.
When PBL is used with 21st-century tools/skills , students are expected to use technology in meaningful ways to help them investigate, collaborate, analyze, synthesize and present their learning. Where technology is infused throughout the project, a more appropriate term for the pedagogy can be referred to as iPBL (copyright 2006, ITJAB), to reflect the emphasis on technological skills as well as academic content.
An example of applied PBL is Muscatine High School, located in Muscatine, Iowa. The school started the G2 (Global Generation Exponential Learning) which consists of middle and high school “Schools within Schools” that deliver the four core subject areas. At the high school level, activities may include making water purification systems, investigating service learning, or creating new bus routes. At the middle school level, activities may include researching trash statistics, documenting local history through interviews, or writing essays about a community scavenger hunt. Classes are designed to help diverse students become college and career ready after high school.
The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation has provided funding to start holistic PBL schools across the United States. These organizations include:
- EdVisions Schools
- Envision Schools
- North Bay Academy of Communication and Design
- Big Picture Schools
- New Tech Network.
Roles
PBL relies on learning groups. Student groups determine their projects, in so doing, they engage student voice by encouraging students to take full responsibility for their learning. This is what makes PBL constructivist. Students work together to accomplish specific goals.
When students use technology as a tool to communicate with others, they take on an active role vs. a passive role of transmitting the information by a teacher, a book, or broadcast. The student is constantly making choices on how to obtain, display, or manipulate information. Technology makes it possible for students to think actively about the choices they make and execute. Every student has the opportunity to get involved either individually or as a group.
Instructor role in Project Based Learning is that of a facilitator. They do not relinquish control of the classroom or student learning but rather develop an atmosphere of shared responsibility. The Instructor must structure the proposed question/issue so as to direct the student's learning toward content-based materials. The instructor must regulate student success with intermittent, transitional goals to ensure student projects remain focused and students have a deep understanding of the concepts being investigated. It is important for teachers not to provide the students any answers because it defeats the learning and investigating process. Once the project is finished, the instructor provides the students with feedback that will help them strengthen their skills for their next project
Student role is to ask questions, build knowledge, and determine a real-world solution to the issue/question presented. Students must collaborate expanding their active listening skills and requiring them to engage in intelligent focused communication. Therefore, allowing them to think rationally on how to solve problems. PBL forces students to take ownership of their success.
Outcomes
More important than learning science, students need to learn to work in a community, thereby taking on social responsibilities. The most significant contributions of PBL have been in schools languishing in poverty stricken areas; when students take responsibility, or ownership, for their learning, their self-esteem soars. It also helps to create better work habits and attitudes toward learning. In standardized tests, languishing schools have been able to raise their testing grades a full level by implementing PBL.Although students do work in groups, they also become more independent because they are receiving little instruction from the teacher. With Project-Based Learning students also learn skills that are essential in higher education. The students learn more than just finding answers, PBL allows them to expand their minds and think beyond what they normally would. Students have to find answers to questions and combine them using critically thinking skills to come up with answers.
PBL is significant to the study of (mis-)conceptions; local concepts and childhood intuitions that are hard to replace with conventional classroom lessons. In PBL, project science is the community culture; the student groups themselves resolve their understandings of phenomena with their own knowledge building. Technology allows them to search in more useful ways, along with getting more rapid results.
Opponents of Project Based Learning warn against negative outcomes primarily in projects that become unfocused and tangential arguing that underdeveloped lessons can result in the wasting of precious class time. No one teaching method has been proven more effective than another. Opponents suggest that narratives and presentation of anecdotal evidence included in lecture-style instruction can convey the same knowledge in less class time. Given that disadvantaged students generally have fewer opportunities to learn academic content outside of school, wasted class time due to an unfocused lesson presents a particular problem. Instructors can be deluded into thinking that as long as a student is engaged and doing, they are learning. Ultimately it is cognitive activity that determines the success of a lesson. If the project does not remain on task and content driven the student will not be successful in learning the material. The lesson will be ineffective. A source of difficulty for teachers includes, "Keeping these complex projects on track while attending to students' individual learning needs requires artful teaching, as well as industrial-strength project management." Like any approach, Project Based Learning is only beneficial when applied successfully.
Problem-based learning is a similar pedagogic approach, however, problem-based approaches structure students' activities more by asking them to solve specific (open-ended) problems rather than relying on students to come up with their own problems in the course of completing a project.
A meta-analysis conducted by Purdue University found that when implemented well, PBL can increase long-term retention of material and replicable skill, as well as improve teachers' and students' attitudes towards learning.
Criticism
One concern is that PBL may be inappropriate in mathematics, the reason being that mathematics is primarily skill-based at the elementary level. Transforming the curriculum into an over-reaching project or series of projects does not allow for the necessary practice at particular mathematical skills. For instance, factoring quadratic equations in elementary algebra is something that requires extensive practice.
On the other hand, a teacher could integrate a PBL approach into the standard curriculum, helping the students see some broader contexts where abstract quadratic equations may apply. For example, Newton's law implies that tossed objects follow a parabolic path, and the roots of the corresponding equation correspond to the starting and ending locations of the object.
Another criticism of PBL is that measures that are stated as reasons for its success are not measurable using standard measurement tools, and rely on subjective rubrics for assessing results.
In PBL there is also a certain tendency for the creation of the final product of the project to become the driving force in classroom activities. When this happens, the project can lose its content focus and be ineffective in helping students learn certain concepts and skills. For example, academic projects that culminate in an artistic display or exhibit may place more emphasis on the artistic processes involved in creating the display than on the academic content that the project is meant to help students learn.
* THE SILENT WAY
The Silent Way is a language-teaching method created by Caleb Gattegno that makes extensive use of silence as a teaching technique. It is not usually considered a mainstream method in language education. It was first introduced in Gattegno's book Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools: The Silent Way in 1963.
Gattegno was skeptical of the mainstream language education of the
time, and conceived of the method as a special case of his general
theories of education.
The method emphasises the autonomy of the learner; the teacher's role
is to monitor the students' efforts, and the students are encouraged to
have an active role in learning the language. Pronunciation is seen as
fundamental; beginning students start their study with pronunciation,
and much time is spent practising it each lesson. The Silent Way uses a structural syllabus, and structures are constantly reviewed and recycled. The choice of vocabulary
is important, with functional and versatile words seen as the best.
Translation and rote repetition are avoided and the language is usually
practiced in meaningful contexts. Evaluation is carried out by observation, and the teacher may never set a formal test.
The teacher uses silence for multiple purposes in the Silent Way. It
is used to focus students' attention, to elicit student responses, and
to encourage them to correct their own errors. Even though teachers are
often silent, they are still active; they will commonly use techniques
such as mouthing words and using hand gestures to help the students with
their pronunciation. Teachers will also encourage students to help
their peers.
Silent Way teachers use specialized teaching materials. One of the hallmarks of the method is the use of Cuisenaire rods,
which can be used for anything from introducing simple commands to
representing abstract objects such as clocks and floor plans. The method
also makes use of color association to help teach pronunciation; there
is a sound-color chart which is used to teach the language sounds, colored word charts which are used to teach sentences, and colored Fidel charts which are used to teach spelling.
Background and principles
Gattegno was a rank outsider to language education when Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools
was first published in 1963. The book was conspicuously lacking the
names of most prominent language educators and linguists of the time,
and Gattegno's works were only cited rarely in language education books
and journals.
He was previously a designer of mathematics and reading programmes, and
the use of color charts and colored Cuisenaire rods in the Silent Way
grew directly out of this experience.
Gattegno was openly sceptical of the role linguistic theory of the
time had in language teaching. He felt that linguistic studies "may be a
specialization, [that] carry with them a narrow opening of one's
sensitivity and perhaps serve very little towards the broad end in
mind". The Silent Way was conceived as a special case of Gattegno's broader
educational principles, rather than a method specifically aimed at
teaching languages. Gattegno developed these ideas to solve general
problems in learning, and he also applied them to his work in the
teaching of mathematics and the mother tongue. Broadly, these principles are:
- Teachers should concentrate on how students learn, not on how to teach
- Imitation and drill are not the primary means by which students learn
- Learning consists of trial and error, deliberate experimentation, suspending judgement, and revising conclusions
- In learning, learners draw on everything that they already know, especially their native language
- The teacher must not interfere with the learning process
These principles situate the Silent Way in the tradition of discovery learning, that sees learning as a creative problem-solving activity.
Design and goals
The general goal of the Silent Way is to help beginning-level students gain basic fluency in the target language, with the ultimate aim being near-native language proficiency and good pronunciation.
An important part of this ability is being able to use the language for
self-expression; students should be able to express their thoughts,
feelings, and needs in the target language. In order to help them
achieve this, teachers emphasize self-reliance. Students are encouraged to actively explore the language, and to develop their own 'inner criteria' as to what is linguistically acceptable.
The role of the teacher is that of technician or engineer. The
teacher's task is to focus the students' attention, and provide
exercises to help them develop language facility; however, to ensure
their self-reliance, the teacher should only help the students as much
as is strictly necessary. As Gattegno says, "The teacher works with the student; the student works on the language." For example, teachers will often give students time to correct their own mistakes before giving them the answer to a question. Teachers also avoid praise or criticism, as it can discourage students from developing self-reliance.
In the Silent Way students are seen as bringing a vast amount of
experience and knowledge with them to the classroom; namely, their first
language. The teacher capitalizes on this knowledge when introducing
new material, always building from the known to the unknown.
The students begin their study of the language by studying its sound
system. The sounds are associated to different colors using a
sound-color chart that is specific to the language being learned. The
teacher first introduces sounds that are already present in the
students' native language, and then progresses to sounds that are new to
them. These sound-color associations are later used to help the
students with spelling, reading, and pronunciation.
The Silent Way uses a structural syllabus. The teacher will typically introduce one new language structure at a time, and old structures are continuously reviewed and recycled. These structures are chosen for their propositional meaning, not for their communicative value. The teacher will set up learning situations for the students which focus their attention on each new structure. For example, the teacher might ask students to label a floor plan of a house in order to introduce the concepts of inside and outside. Once the language structures have been presented in this way, learners learn the grammar rules through a process of induction.
Gattegno saw the choice of which vocabulary to teach as vital to the
language learning process. He advised teachers to concentrate on the
most functional and versatile words, to help students build a functional
vocabulary.
Translation and rote repetition are avoided, and instead emphasis is
placed on conveying meaning through students' perceptions, and through
practicing the language in meaningful contexts.
In the floor plan example, the plan itself negates the need for
translation, and the teacher is able to give the students meaningful
practice simply by pointing to different parts of the house. The four skills of active listening,
speaking, reading, and writing are worked on from the beginning stages,
although students only learn to read something after they have learned
to say it.
Evaluation in the Silent Way is carried out primarily by observation.
Teachers may never give a formal test, but they constantly assess
students by observing their actions. This allows them to respond
straight away to any problems the students might have.Teachers also gain feedback through observing students' errors; errors
are seen as natural and necessary for learning, and can be a useful
guide as to what structures need more practice. Furthermore, teachers may gain feedback by asking the students at the end of the lesson.When evaluating the students, teachers expect them to learn at
different rates, and students are not penalized for learning more slowly
than their classmates. Teachers look for steady progress in the
language, not perfection.
Process
Teaching techniques
Just as the name implies, silence is a key tool of the teacher in the
Silent Way. From the beginning levels, students do 90 percent or more
of the talking. Being silent moves the focus of the classroom from the teacher to the students, and can encourage cooperation among them. It also frees the teacher to observe the class.
Silence can be used to help students correct their own errors. Teachers
can remain silent when a student makes a mistake to give them time to
self-correct; they can also help students with their pronunciation by mouthing words without vocalizing, and by using certain hand gestures. When teachers do speak, they tend to say things only once so that students learn to focus their attention on them.
A Silent Way classroom also makes extensive use of peer correction.
Students are encouraged to help their classmates when they have trouble
with any particular feature of the language. This help should be made
in a cooperative fashion, not a competitive one. One of the teacher's
tasks is to monitor these interactions, so that they are helpful and do
not interfere with students' learning.
Teaching materials
The silent way makes use of specialized teaching materials: colored Cuisenaire rods,
the sound-color chart, word charts, and Fidel charts. The Cuisenaire
rods are wooden, and come in ten different lengths, but identical
cross-section; each length has its own assigned color.
The rods are used in a wide variety of situations in the classroom. At
the beginning stages they can be used to practice colors and numbers,
and later they can be used in more complex grammar. For example, to
teach prepositions
the teacher could use the statement "The blue rod is between the green
one and the yellow one". They can also be used more abstractly, perhaps
to represent a clock or the floor plan of a house.
The sound-color chart consists of blocks of color, with one color
representing one sound in the language being learned. The teacher uses
this chart to help teach pronunciation; as well as pointing to colors to
help students with the different sounds, she can also tap particular
colors very hard to help students learn word stress.
Later in the learning process, students can point to the chart
themselves. The chart can help students perceive sounds that may not
occur in their first language, and it also allows students to practice
making these sounds without relying on mechanical repetition. It also
provides an easily verifiable record of which sounds the students and
which they have not, which can help their autonomy.
The word charts contain the functional vocabulary of the target
language, and use the same color scheme as the sound-color chart. Each
letter is colored in a way that indicates its pronunciation. The teacher
can point to the chart to highlight the pronunciation of different
words in sentences that the students are learning. There are twelve word
charts in English, containing a total of around five hundred words.
The Fidel charts also use the same color-coding, and list the various
ways that sounds can be spelled. For example, in English, the entry for
the sound /ey/ contains the spellings ay, ea, ei, eigh, etc., all written in the same color. These can be used to help students associate sounds with their spelling.
* PARTICIPATORY APPROACH
Participatory approach is the approach whichis applied by the teacher to learner to exposure language learners to the target language through issue of concern to students.
Role of Teacher
Role of teacher is the teacher conduct of the flow of the lesson or as a facilitator.
Role of Student
The expression participatory is self explanatory.
student are active participant.
As
with qualitative methods, participatory evaluation ensures that the
perspectives and insights of all stakeholders, beneficiaries as well as
project implementers, are taken into consideration. However, the
participatory approach is very much action-oriented. The stakeholders
themselves are responsible for collecting and analyzing the information,
and for generating recommendations for change. The role of an outside
evaluator is to facilitate and support this learning process.
Participatory M&E develops ownership by placing a strong emphasis on
building the capacity and commitment of all stakeholders to reflect,
analyze, and take responsibility for implementing any changes they
recommend.
Typically,
participatory methods have been used to learn about local-level
conditions and local people's perspectives and their priorities during
project appraisal. But one can go further, and use participatory methods
not only at project formulation stage, but throughout the duration of
the project, and especially for evaluating how the poor perceived the
benefits from the project. Participatory monitoring and evaluation
(PM&E) is an important management tool that provides task managers
with quick feedback on project effectiveness during implementation. This
has become increasingly important as development interventions move
away from "blueprint projects" toward the more flexible planning which
enables projects to learn and adapt on-the-ground.
There
are many different participatory information collection and analysis
tools. Most of these are not inherently M&E tools, but can be used
for a range of purposes ranging from project planning and community
mobilization through M&E depending on the way they are employed. As
with all participatory approaches, the key to success is to be flexible
and innovative in the use of appropriate tools and methods, and to be
willing to adapt to local circumstances.
This
site provides descriptions of three participatory methodologies and
their associated tools and techniques which are commonly used in
participatory M&E:
- Beneficiary Assessment (BA)
- Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)
- SARAR: Self-esteem, Associative strength, Resourcefulness, Action planning and Responsibility
These
methods can be used alone or combined in a single evaluation. They
represent only a small sample of the vast range of participatory
techniques that can be used for M&E.
It
should be noted that none of these participatory methods is intended to
be a replacement for good quality survey work. Indeed, they are often
used in conjunction with other methods. For example, the findings from a
preliminary study using PRA or SARAR techniques can usefully give
direction and focus to a subsequent survey-based evaluations. In turn,
the survey can verify and quantify the qualitative findings from
participatory evaluations and be applied on a larger scale.
Participatory evaluations done after quantitative surveys can verify or
challenge survey findings, and can go some way toward explaining the
information collected by the quantitative survey-based evaluations.
* NEUROLINGUISTIC PROGRAMMING
Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) is an incredibly
powerful discipline that enables people to unblock the structures of
human communication and human excellence. By doing so people can
think, communicate and manage themselves, and others, more effectively.
NLP explores the relationships between how we think
(neuro), how we communicate (linguistic) and our patterns of behaviour
and emotion (programmes).
By studying and learning from these relationships people can
effectively transform the way they traditionally think and act,
adopting new, far more successful models of human excellence. (This
activity is called modelling and is a key feature that distinguishes
NLP from psychology).
In effect, NLP is a powerful change management tool that
transforms the way people think and act to have the greatest impact
both professionally and personally. That’s why NLP is one of the most
powerful skills used in business management, psychology, sales, sports
coaching and all forms of personal development.
NLP can help you to:
- Be more successful by learning to influence your emotional and psychological states.
- Replace negative behaviors and habits with positive ones.
- Transform the way you go about everyday tasks.
- Be more aware of your impact on others and how to manage your behaviour for optimal results.
- Better understand your own motivations, needs and behaviors and use these positively to have the greatest impact.
- Better understand your staff’s and customer’s needs, motivations and behaviors.
- Improve and enhance your interpersonal communication at the office and at home.
* NATURAL APPROACH
The natural approach is a method of language teaching developed by Stephen Krashen and Tracy Terrell
in the late 1970s and early 1980s. It aims to foster naturalistic
language acquisition in a classroom setting, and to this end it
emphasises communication, and places decreased importance on conscious grammar
study and explicit correction of student errors. Efforts are also made
to make the learning environment as stress-free as possible. In the
natural approach, language output is not forced, but allowed to emerge
spontaneously after students have attended to large amounts of
comprehensible language input.
The natural approach has become closely associated with Krashen's monitor model,
and it is often seen as an application of the theory to language
teaching. Despite this perception, there are some differences,
particularly Terrell's view that some degree of conscious grammar study
can be beneficial. The syllabus focuses on activities which Terrell sees
as promoting subconscious language acquisition. He divides these
activities into four main areas: content activities, such as learning a
new subject in the target language; activities which focus on
personalizing language, such as students sharing their favorite music;
games; and problem-solving activities.
Background
The natural approach was originally invented in 1977 by Terrell, a Spanish teacher in California, who wished to develop a style of teaching based on the findings of naturalistic studies of second-language acquisition.
After the original formulation, Terrell worked with Krashen to further
develop the theoretical aspects of the method. Terrell and Krashen
published the results of their collaboration in the 1983 book The Natural Approach.
The natural approach was strikingly different from the mainstream
approach in the United States in the 1970s and early 1980s, the audio-lingual method.
While the audio-lingual method prized drilling and error correction,
these things disappeared almost entirely from the natural approach. Terrell and Krashen themselves characterized the natural approach as a "traditional" method and contrasted it with grammar-based approaches, which they characterized as new inventions that had "misled" teachers.
The natural approach shares many earmarks with the direct method (itself also known as the "natural method"), which was formulated around 1900 and was also a reaction to grammar-translation.
Both the natural approach and the direct method are based on the idea
of enabling naturalistic language acquisition in the language classroom;
they differ in that the natural approach puts less emphasis on practice
and more on exposure to language input and on reducing learners'
anxiety.
Outline
The aim of the natural approach is to develop communicative skills, and it is primarily intended to be used with beginning learners.
It is presented as a set of principles that can apply to a wide range
of learners and teaching situations, and concrete objectives depend on
the specific context in which it is used. Terrell outlines three basic principles of the approach:
- "Focus of instruction is on communication rather than its form."
- "Speech production comes slowly and is never forced."
- "Early speech goes through natural stages (yes or no response, one- word answers, lists of words, short phrases, complete sentences.)"
These principles result in classrooms where the teacher emphasizes interesting, comprehensible input and low-anxiety situations. Lessons in the natural approach focus on understanding messages in the foreign language, and place little or no importance on error correction, drilling or on conscious learning of grammar rules. They also emphasize learning of a wide vocabulary base over learning new grammatical structures.
In addition, teachers using the natural approach aim to create
situations in the classroom that are intrinsically motivating for
students.
Terrell sees learners going through three stages in their acquisition
of speech: comprehension, early speech, and speech emergence.
In the comprehension stage Terrell focuses on students' vocabulary
knowledge. His aim is to make the vocabulary stick in students' long
term memory, a process which he calls binding. Terrell sees some techniques as more binding than others; for example, the use of gestures or actions, such as in Total Physical Response, is seen to be more binding than the use of translation.
According to Terrell, students' speech will only emerge after enough language has been bound through communicative input.
When this occurs, the learners enter the early speech stage. In this
stage, students answer simple questions, use single words and set
phrases, and fill in simple charts in the foreign language.
In the speech emergence stage, students take part in activities
requiring more advanced language, such as role-plays and problem-solving
activities.
Theory
Although Terrell originally created the natural approach without
relying on a particular theoretical model, his subsequent collaboration
with Krashen has meant that the method is often seen as an application
to language teaching of Krashen's monitor model. Krashen outlined five hypotheses in his model:
- The acquisition-learning hypothesis. This states that there is a strict separation between conscious learning of language and subconscious acquisition of language, and that only acquisition can lead to fluent language use.
- The monitor hypothesis. This states that language knowledge that is consciously learned can only be used to monitor output, not to generate new language. Monitoring output requires learners to be focused on the rule and to have time to apply it.
- The input hypothesis. This states that language is acquired by exposure to comprehensible input at a level a little higher than that the learner can already understand. Krashen names this kind of input "i+1".
- The natural order hypothesis. This states that learners acquire the grammatical features of a language in a fixed order, and that this is not affected by instruction.
- The affective filter hypothesis. This states that learners must be relaxed and open to learning in order for language to be acquired. Learners who are nervous or distressed may not learn features in the input that more relaxed learners would pick up with little effort.
Despite its basis in Krashen's theory, the natural approach does not
adhere to the theory strictly. In particular, Terrell perceives a
greater role for the conscious learning of grammar than Krashen.
Krashen's monitor hypothesis contends that conscious learning has no
effect on learners' ability to generate novel language, whereas Terrell
is of the opinion that some conscious learning of grammar rules can be
beneficial.
Syllabus
Terrell outlines four categories of classroom activities that can facilitate language acquisition (as opposed to language learning):
- "Content (culture, subject matter, new information, reading, e.g. teacher tells interesting anecdote involving contrast between target and native culture.)"
- "Affective-humanistic (students' own ideas, opinions, experiences, e.g. students are asked to share personal preferences as to music, places to live, clothes, hair styles, etc.)"
- "Games [focus on using language to participate in the game, e.g. 20 questions: I, the teacher, am thinking of an object in this room. You, students, have twenty questions to guess object. Typical questions: is it clothing? (yes) is it for a man or a woman? (woman) is it a skirt? (yes) is it brown? (yes) is it Ellen's skirt? (yes)]"
- "Problem solving (focus on using language to locate information, use information, etc., e.g. looking at this listing of films in the newspaper, and considering the different tastes and schedule needs in the group, which film would be appropriate for all of us to attend, and when?)"
Reception
The natural approach enjoyed much popularity with language teachers, particularly with Spanish teachers in the United States.
Markee (1997) puts forward four reasons for the success of the method.
First, she says that the method was simple to understand, despite the
complex nature of the research involved. Second, it was also compatible
with the knowledge about second-language acquisition at the time. Third,
Krashen stressed that teachers should be free to try the method, and
that it could go alongside their existing classroom practices. Finally,
Krashen demonstrated the method to many teachers' groups, so that they
could see how it would work in practice.
* SELF DIRECT LEARNING
Self-directed learning is not a new concept. In fact, much has been
written about it. Unfortunately, however, it is a notion that has a
variety of interpretations and applications in the corporate training
arena. Typical, narrow interpretations involve simply giving learners
some sort of choice in their learning. For example, allowing learners to
select one or more courses from a curriculum, or, in cases of
structured on-the-job training, allowing employees to choose what
pre-designed modules (e.g., a video tape, workbook, special reading,
etc.) to complete. In terms of e-learning, the fact that learners can
determine which modules or scenarios to review is also frequently touted
as self-directed learning.The fact that the learner has a choice and
makes a decision to select this or that module does not constitute true
self-directed learning.
This interpretation is too limited. Self-directed learning is much
more. Using the analogy of taking a trip, the narrow interpretation of
SDL is equivalent to selecting where to go, i.e., the destination. The
essence of the notion of self-directed learning advocated here, however,
is broader, more fundamental. It is about the learner deciding not just
where to take a trip but how they will go (both the means of
transportation as well as route), when they will leave, how they will
get there and how long they will stay.
Essentially, the notion of SDL advocated here reflects Malcolm Knowles definition of SDL:
“In its broadest meaning, ’self-directed learning’ describes a
process by which individuals take the initiative, with our without the
assistance of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating
learning goals, identify human and material resources for learning,
choosing and implement appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating
learning outcomes.” (Knowles, 1975, p. 18)
Of primary concern in this definition of SDL is the fact the learner
takes 1) the initiative to pursue a learning experience, and 2) the
responsibility for completing their learning. Once the initiative is
taken, the learner assumes complete responsibility and accountability
for defining the learning experience and following it through to its
conclusion. This does not preclude input from others, but the final
decision is the learner’s. Self-direction does not mean the learner
learns alone or in isolation. While, that may be the case in any given
learning situation, the critical factor here, again, is the fact the
learner is driving the total learning experience, beginning with
recognizing a need to learn.
* PROBLEM BASED LEARNING
Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered pedagogy
in which students learn about a subject through the experience of
problem solving. Students learn both thinking strategies and domain
knowledge. The PBL format originated from the medical school
of thought, and is now used in other schools of thought too. The goals
of PBL are to help the students develop flexible knowledge, effective
problem solving skills, self-directed learning, effective collaboration
skills and intrinsic motivation. Problem-based learning is a style of active learning.
Working in groups, students identify what they already know, what
they need to know, and how and where to access new information that may
lead to resolution of the problem. The role of the instructor (known as the tutor in PBL) is to facilitate learning by supporting, guiding, and monitoring the learning process.
The tutor must build students' confidence to take on the problem, and
encourage the students, while also stretching their understanding. PBL
represents a paradigm shift from traditional teaching and learning
philosophy, which is more often lecture-based. The constructs for teaching PBL are very different from traditional classroom/lecture teaching.
Definition
- 1. Student Centered Learning
- 2. Learning is done in Small Student Groups, ideally 6-10 people
- 3. Facilitators or Tutors guide the students rather than teach
- 4. A Problem forms the basis for the organized focus of the group, and stimulates learning
- 5. The problem is a vehicle for the development of problem solving skills. It stimulates the cognitive process.
- 6. New knowledge is obtained through Self-Directed Learning(SDL)
History
PBL was pioneered in the medical school program at McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada in the late 1960s by Howard Barrows and his colleagues.
Traditional medical education disenchanted students, who perceived the
vast amount of material presented in the first three years of medical
school as having little relevance to the practice of medicine and
clinically based medicine.
The PBL curriculum was developed in order to stimulate the learners,
assist the learners in seeing the relevance of learning to future roles,
maintain a higher level of motivation towards learning, and to show the
learners the importance of responsible, professional attitudes.
Problem-based learning has subsequently been adopted by other medical school programs, adapted for undergraduate instruction, as well as K-12.
The use of PBL has expanded from its initial introduction into medical
school programs to include education in the areas of other health
sciences, math, law, education, economics, business, social studies, and engineering.
The use of PBL, like other student-centered pedagogies, has been
motivated by recognition of the failures of traditional instruction. and the emergence of deeper understandings of how people learn. Unlike traditional instruction, PBL actively engages the student in constructing knowledge. PBL includes problems that can be solved in many different ways and have more than one solution.
Supporters
Advocates of PBL claim it can be used to enhance content knowledge
while simultaneously fostering the development of communication,
problem-solving, critical thinking, collaboration, and self-directed
learning skills.
PBL may position students in a simulated real world working and
professional context which involves policy, process, and ethical
problems that will need to be understood and resolved to some outcome.
By working through a combination of learning strategies to discover the
nature of a problem, understanding the constraints and options to its
resolution, defining the input variables, and understanding the
viewpoints involved, students learn to negotiate the complex
sociological nature of the problem and how competing resolutions may
inform decision-making.
Constructivism and PBL
Problem Based Learning addresses the need to promote lifelong learning through the process of inquiry and constructivist learning.
PBL can be considered a constructivist approach to instruction,
emphasizing collaborative and self-directed learning and being supported
by flexible teacher scaffolding. Yew and Schmidt, Schmidt, and Hung elaborate on the cognitive constructivist process of PBL:
- 1. Learners are presented with a problem and through discussion within their group, activate their prior knowledge.
- 2. Within their group, they develop possible theories or hypotheses to explain the problem. Together they identify learning issues to be researched. They construct a shared primary model to explain the problem at hand. Facilitators provide scaffold, which is a frame work on which students can construct knowledge relating to the problem.
- 3. After the initial team work, students work independently in self directed study to research the identified issues.
- 4. The students re-group to discuss their findings and refine their initial explanations based on what they learned.
PBL follows a constructivist perspective in learning as the role of
the instructor is to guide and challenge the learning process rather
than strictly providing knowledge.
From this perspective, feedback and reflection on the learning process
and group dynamics are essential components of PBL. Students are
considered to be active agents who engage in social knowledge
construction. PBL assists in processes of creating meaning and building
personal interpretations of the world based on experiences and
interactions. PBL assists to guide the student from theory to practice during their journey through solving the problem.
Supporting evidence
Several studies support the success of the constructivist problem-based and inquiry learning methods.One example is a study on a project called GenScope, an inquiry-based
science software application, which found that students using the
GenScope software showed significant gains over the control groups, with
the largest gains shown in students from basic courses.
One large study tracked middle school students' performance on
high-stakes standardized tests to evaluate the effectiveness of
inquiry-based science. The study found a 14 percent improvement for the first cohort of students and a 13 percent improvement for the second cohort. The study also found that inquiry-based teaching methods greatly reduced the achievement gap for African-American students.
A systematic review of the effects of problem-based learning in
medical school on the performance of doctors after graduation showed
clear positive effects on physician
competence. This effect was especially strong for social and cognitive
competencies such as coping with uncertainty and communication skills.
Another study from Slovenia
looked at whether students who learn with PBL are better at solving
problems and if their attitudes towards mathematics were improved
compared to their peers in a more traditional curriculum. The study
found that students who were exposed to PBL were better at solving more
difficult problems, however, there was no significant difference in
student attitude towards mathematics.
Examples of PBL in curricula
Malaysia
In Malaysia,
an attempt is being made to introduce a problem-based learning model in
secondary mathematics, with the aim of educating citizens to prepare
them for decision-making in sustainable and responsible development.
This model called problem-based learning the four core areas (PBL4C)
first sprouted in SEAMEO RECSAM in 2008, and as a result of training courses conducted, a paper was presented at the EARCOME5 conference in 2010, followed by two papers during the 15th UNESCO-APEID
conference in 2011. This model has since expanded in its use in the
field of education management, Education for International &
Intranational Understanding (EIU), and human resource management.
Subsequently, many Malaysian universities began implementing PBL in
their curricula in an effort to improve the quality of their education.
In collaboration with Aalborg University of Denmark, PBL was introduced at University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
(UTHM). Since then the PBL was widely used among engineering and as
well as humanities lecturers at UTHM (Berhannudin, 2007). In Universiti Malaya, the Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery and Bachelor of Dental Surgery
courses included several sessions of problem-based learning in their
curriculum as a way of teaching interactions between students.
Medical schools
Several medical schools have incorporated problem-based learning into
their curricula, using real patient cases to teach students how to
think like a clinician. More than eighty percent of medical schools in
the United States now have some form of problem-based learning in their
programs. Research of 10 years of data from the University of Missouri School of Medicine indicates that PBL has a positive effect on the students' competency as physicians after graduation.
Monash University
was the second institution to adopt PBL within a medical school
environment and continues to apply this within the Faculty of Medicine,
Nursing and Health Sciences for the Bachelor of Medicine / Bachelor of
Surgery (MBBS) programs delivered in Australia and Malaysia.
Maastricht University offers its whole program in PBL format only, as does the University of Limerick graduate entry medical school in Ireland.
In 1998, Western University of Health Sciences opened its College of Veterinary Medicine, with curriculum based completely on PBL.
In 2004, the Lake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine founded a branch campus in Bradenton, Florida, using an entirely PBL format. From 2006 to 2010, this campus led the nation in COMLEX scores.
In 2002, Gadjah Mada University of Yogyakarta, Indonesia began offering an International Medicine program based on problem-based learning.
In 2009, Libyan International Medical University of Benghazi, Libya started using PBL for all of its medical programmes.
High School
In 2008, Parramatta Marist High School
a secondary Catholic school in Australia employed the methods of PBL in
their teaching for year 9 and 10 boys. The learning system was a great
success and since has been expanded to lower grades to challenge
students to think outside of the box and relate content drive courses to
problems in the real world.
Criticisms
Cognitive load
Sweller and others have published a series of studies over the past
twenty years that is relevant to problem-based learning but concerning cognitive load and what they describe as the guidance-fading effect. Sweller et al. conducted several classroom-based studies with students studying algebra problems.
These studies have shown that active problem solving early in the
learning process is a less effective instructional strategy than
studying worked examples
(Sweller and Cooper, 1985; Cooper and Sweller, 1987). Certainly active
problem solving is useful as learners become more competent, and better
able to deal with their working memory limitations. But early in the
learning process, learners may find it difficult to process a large
amount of information in a short amount of time. Thus the rigors of
active problem solving may become an issue for novices. Once learners
gain expertise the scaffolding inherent in problem-based learning helps
learners avoid these issues. These studies have however been conducted
largely based on individual problem solving of well-defined problems.
Sweller (1988) proposed cognitive load theory to explain how novices react to problem solving during the early stages of learning.
Sweller, et al. suggests a worked example early, and then a gradual
introduction of problems to be solved. They propose other forms of
learning early in the learning process (worked example, goal free
problems, etc.); to later be replaced by completions problems, with the
eventual goal of solving problems on their own. This problem based learning becomes very useful later in the learning process.
Many forms of scaffolding
have been implemented in problem based learning to reduce the cognitive
load of learners. These are most useful to fade guidance during problem
solving. As an example, consider the fading effect helps learners to
slowly transit from studying examples to solving problems. In this case
backwards fading was found to be quite effective and assisting in
decreasing the cognitive load on learners.
Evaluation of the effects of PBL learning in comparison to
traditional instructional learning have proved to be a challenge.
Various factors can influence the implementation of PBL: extent of PBL
incorporation into curriculum, group dynamics, nature of problems used,
facilitator influence on group, and the motivation of the learners.
There are also various outcomes of PBL that can be measured including
knowledge acquisition and clinical competence. Additional studies are needed to investigate all the variables and technological scaffolds, that may impact the efficacy PBL.
Demands of Implementing
Implementing PBL in schools and Universities is a demanding process that requires resources, a lot of planning and organization. Azer discusses the 12 steps for implementing the "pure PBL"
- 1. Prepare faculty for change
- 2. Establish a new curriculum committee and working group
- 3. Designing the new PBL curriculum and defining educational outcomes
- 4. Seeking Advice from Experts in PBL
- 5. Planning, Organizing and Managing
- 6. Training PBL facilitators and defining the objectives of a facilitator
- 7. Introducing Students to the PBL Program
- 8. Using 3-learning to support the delivery of the PBL program
- 9. Changing the assessment to suit the PBL curriculum
- 10. Encouraging feedback from students and teaching staff
- 11. Managing learning resources and facilities that support self directed learning
- 12. Continuing evaluation and making changes (pg. 809-812)
Hung reviews the various models of PBL, Barrow's original concept or
"pure PBL", the Hybrid PBL and lecture based learning with problem
solving activities.
In general these models form a continuum where the level of instruction
and lecture are inversely proportional to the amount of self-directed
learning. The individual Problem design, or "trigger" must ultimately
guide students to obtain the learning objectives. Azer reviews the
detailed objectives for constructing "the problem" for PBL.
Facilitator selection, training and development is very important to
PBL. Students respond better to motivated and enthusiastic facilitators.
It is the facilitator's role to direct students during the tutorials.
Guiding students learning entails much more time then simply giving
students the answers. Kol et al.(2008) reported PBL facilitator-student contact time was 3-4 times greater than instructors in traditional methods.
Other outcomes
One of the aims of PBL is the development of self-directed learning
(SDL) skills. In Loyens, Magda & Rikers' discussion, SDL is defined
as "a process in which individuals take the initiative…in diagnosing
their learning needs, formulating goals, identifying human and material
resources, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies,
and evaluating learning outcomes."
By being invited into the learning process, students are also invited
to take responsibility for their learning, which leads to an increase in
self-directed learning skills. In Severiens and Schmidt’s study of 305
first year college students, they found that PBL and its focus on SDL
led to motivation for students to maintain study pace, led to social and
academic integration, encouraged development of cognitive skills, and
fostered more study progress than students in a conventional learning
setting.
PBL encourages learners to take a place in the academic world through
inquiring and discovery that is central to problem-based learning.
PBL is also argued as a learning method that can promote the development of critical thinking skills.
In PBL learning, students learn how to analyze a problem, identify
relevant facts and generate hypotheses, identify necessary
information/knowledge for solving the problem and make reasonable
judgments about solving the problem.
Employers have appreciated the positive attributes of communication,
teamwork, respect and collaboration that PBL experienced students have
developed. These skills provide for better future skills preparation in
the ever-changing information explosion. PBL curriculum includes
building these attributes through knowledge building, written and
interpersonal interactions and through the experience of the problem
solving process.
* SUGGESTOPEDIA
Suggestopedia (USA English) or Suggestopaedia (UK English) is a teaching method developed by the Bulgarian psychotherapist Georgi Lozanov.
It is used in different fields, but mostly in the field of foreign
language learning. Lozanov has claimed that by using this method a
teacher's students can learn a language approximately three to five
times as quickly as through conventional teaching methods.
Suggestopedia has been called a "pseudo-science". It strongly depends on the trust that students develop towards the method by simply believing that it works.
The theory applied positive suggestion
in teaching when it was developed in the 1970s. However, as the method
improved, it has focused more on “desuggestive learning” and now is
often called “desuggestopedia.” Suggestopedia is a portmanteau of the words “suggestion” and “pedagogy".
A common misconception is to link "suggestion" to "hypnosis". However,
Lozanov intended it in the sense of offering or proposing, emphasising
student choice.
Purpose and theory
The intended purpose of Suggestopedia was to enhance learning by
tapping into the power of suggestion. Lozanov claims in his website, Suggestology and Suggestopedy,
that “suggestopedia is a system for liberation”; liberation from the
“preliminary negative concept regarding the difficulties in the process
of learning” that is established throughout their life in the society.
Desuggestopedia focuses more on liberation as Lozanov describes
“desuggestive learning” as “free, without a mildest pressure, liberation
of previously suggested programs to restrict intelligence and
spontaneous acquisition of knowledge, skills and habits.” The method
implements this by working not only on the conscious level of human mind
but also on the subconscious level, the mind’s reserves.
In practice
Physical surroundings and atmosphere in classroom are the vital
factors to make sure that "the students feel comfortable and confident",
and various techniques, including art and music, are used by the
trained teachers. The lesson of Suggestopedia consisted of three phases
at first: deciphering, concert session (memorization séance), and
elaboration.
Deciphering: The teacher introduces the grammar and lexis of the content.
Concert session (active and passive): In the active session,
the teacher reads the text at a normal speed, sometimes intoning some
words, and the students follow. In the passive session, the students
relax and listen to the teacher reading the text calmly. Music
(“Pre-Classical”) is played in the background.
Elaboration: The students finish off what they have learned with dramas, songs, and games.
Then it has developed into four phases as lots of experiments were
done: introduction, concert session, elaboration, and production.
Introduction: The teacher teaches the material in “a playful
manner” instead of analyzing lexis and grammar of the text in a
directive manner.
Concert session (active and passive): In the active session,
the teacher reads with intoning as selected music is played.
Occasionally, the students read the text together with the teacher, and
listen only to the music as the teacher pauses in particular moments.
The passive session is done more calmly.
Elaboration: The students sing classical songs and play games while “the teacher acts more like a consultant”.
Production: The students spontaneously speak and interact in the target language without interruption or correction.
Teachers
Teachers should not act in a directive way, although this method is
teacher-controlled and not student-controlled. For example, they should
act as a real partner to the students, participating in the activities
such as games and songs “naturally” and “genuinely.”
In the concert session, they should fully include classical art in
their behaviors. Although there are many techniques that the teachers
use, factors such as “communication in the spirit of love, respect for
man as a human being, the specific humanitarian way of applying their
‘techniques’” etc. are crucial. The teachers not only need to know the techniques and to acquire the practical methodology
completely, but also to fully understand the theory, because, if they
implement those techniques without complete understanding, they will not
be able lead their learners to successful results, or they could even
cause a negative impact on their learning. Therefore, the teacher has to
be trained in a course taught by certified trainers.
Here are the most important factors for teachers to acquire, described by Lozanov.
- Covering a huge bulk of learning material.
- Structuring the material in the suggestopaedic way: global-partial – partial-global, and global in the part – part in the global, related to the golden proportion.
- As a professional, on one hand, and a personality, on the other hand, the teacher should be a highly-regarded professional, reliable and credible.
- The teacher should have, not play, a hundred percent expectation of positive results (because the teacher is already experienced even from the time of the teacher training course).
- The teacher should love his/her students (of course, not sentimentally but as human beings) and teach them with personal participation through games, songs, classical arts, and pleasure.
Method for children (preventive Suggestopedia)
The method for Adults includes long sessions without movement,
and materials that are appropriate for adults. Children, however, get
impacts from “the social suggestive norms” differently and their brains
are more delicate than those of adults. Therefore, another method with
different materials should be applied to children, which better matches
their characteristics. Lessons for children are more incidental and
short, preventing the children from the negative pedagogical suggestions
of Society. It is important to tell the parents about the method and
their roles because they could influence children both negatively and
positively, depending on how they support the kids.
Side effects
Lozanov claims that the effect of the method is not only in language
learning, but also in producing favorable side effects on health, the
social and psychological relations, and the subsequent success in other
subjects.
Unesco's final report on Suggestopedia
Recommendations (Extraction)
Made by the Experts from the Working Group on Suggestology as a Learning Methodology Meeting in Sofia, December 11–17, 1978
...1. There is consensus that Suggestopedia is a generally superior
teaching method for many subjects and for many types of students,
compared with traditional methods. We have arrived at this consensus
following a study of the research literature, listening to the testimony
of international experts, observing films portraying Suggestopedia
instruction and visiting classes in which Suggestopedia is practiced.
The films were prepared and the classroom visitations were impressive.
...2. Standards should be set up for the training, certification and maintaining of standards of suggestopedic training.
...3. Different categories of competency of teachers should be used
to reflect increasing levels of teaching performance in certification.
...4. Suggestopedic teacher training should be started as soon as possible.
...5. An International Association for Suggestology and Suggestopedia
should be set up that is affiliated with UNESCO and should have the
assistance and guidance of Dr. Lozanov for training, research,
coordination and publication of results.
...6. UNESCO is requested to give its support to all these proposed
activities by all possible means and under the existing international
regulations.”
Criticism
Suggestopedia has been called a "pseudo-science".
It strongly depends on the trust that students develop towards the
method by simply believing that it works. Lozanov himself admits that
Suggestopedia can be compared to a placebo. He argues, however, that
placebos are indeed effective. Another point of criticism is brought
forward by Baur who claims that the students only receive input by
listening, reading and musical-emotional backing, while other important
factors of language acquisition are being neglected.
Furthermore, several other features of the method, like the
'nonconscious' acquisition of language, or bringing the learner into a
childlike state are questioned by critics.
Lukesch claims that Suggestopedia lacks scientific backing and is criticized by psychologists as being based on pseudoscience.
Later variations
Suggestopedia produced four main offshoots. The first was still
called Suggestopedia but was developed in eastern Europe and used
different techniques from Lozanov's original version. The other three
are named Superlearning, Suggestive Accelerated Learning and Teaching (SALT), and Psychopädie. Superlearning and SALT originated in North America, while Psychopädie was developed in West Germany.
While all four are slightly different from the original Suggestopedia
and from each other, they still share the common traits of music,
relaxation, and suggestion.
* COLLABORATING
Collaboration is working with each other to do a task. It is a recursive process where two or more people or organizations
work together to realize shared goals, (this is more than the
intersection of common goals seen in co-operative ventures, but a deep,
collective, determination to reach an identical objective for example, an endeavor that is creative in nature- by sharing knowledge, learning and building consensus. Most collaboration requires leadership, although the form of leadership can be social within a decentralized and egalitarian group.
In particular, teams that work collaboratively can obtain greater
resources, recognition and reward when facing competition for finite
resources. Collaboration is also present in opposing goals exhibiting the notion of adversarial collaboration, though this is not a common case for using the word.
Structured methods of collaboration encourage introspection of behavior and communication. These methods specifically aim to increase the success of teams as they engage in collaborative problem solving. Forms, rubrics, charts and graphs are useful in these situations to objectively document personal traits with the goal of improving performance in current and future projects.
Since the Second World War the term "Collaboration" acquired a very
negative meaning as referring to persons and groups which help a foreign
occupier of their country—due to actual use by people in European
countries who worked with and for the Nazi German occupiers.
Linguistically, "collaboration" implies more or less equal partners who
work together—which is obviously not the case when one party is an army
of occupation and the other are people of the occupied country living
under the power of this army.
In order to make a distinction, the more specific term Collaborationism
is often used for this phenomenon of collaboration with an occupying
army. However, there is no water-tight distinction; "Collaboration" and
"Collaborator", as well as "Collaborationism" and "Collaborationist",
are often used in this pejorative sense—and even more so, the equivalent
terms in French and other languages spoken in countries which experienced direct Nazi occupation.
Classical examples of collaboration
Following are some examples of successful collaboration efforts in the past.
Trade
Trade originated with the start of communication in prehistoric
times. Trading was the main facility of prehistoric people, who
bartered goods and services from each other when there was no such thing
as the modern day currency. Peter Watson dates the history of long-distance commerce from circa 150,000 years ago.[8]
Trade exists for many reasons. Due to specialisation and division of
labor, most people concentrate on a small aspect of production, trading
for other products. Trade exists between regions because different
regions have a comparative advantage in the production of some tradable commodity, or because different regions' size allows for the benefits of mass production. As such, trade at market prices between locations benefits both locations.
Community organization
This section does not cite any references or sources. (November 2007) |
Main article: intentional community
The members of an intentional community typically hold a common social, political or spiritual vision. They also share responsibilities and resources. Intentional communities include cohousing, residential land trusts, ecovillages, communes, kibbutzim, ashrams, and housing cooperatives.
Typically, new members of an intentional community are selected by the
community's existing membership, rather than by real-estate agents or
land owners (if the land is not owned by the community).
- Hutterite, Austria (16th century)
- Housing units are built and assigned to individual families but belong to the colony and there is very little personal property. Meals are taken by the entire colony in a common long room.
- Oneida Community, Oneida, New York (1848)
- The Oneida Community practiced Communalism (in the sense of communal property and possessions) and Mutual Criticism, where every member of the community was subject to criticism by committee or the community as a whole, during a general meeting. The goal was to eliminate bad character traits.
- Early Kibbutz settlements founded near Jerusalem (1890)
- A Kibbutz is an Israeli collective community. The movement combines socialism and Zionism in a form of practical Labor Zionism, founded at a time when independent farming was not practical or perhaps more correctly—not practicable. Forced by necessity into communal life, and inspired by their own ideology, the kibbutz members developed a pure communal mode of living that attracted interest from the entire world. While the kibbutzim lasted for several generations as utopian communities, most of today's kibbutzim are scarcely different from the capitalist enterprises and regular towns to which the kibbutzim were originally supposed to be alternatives.
Game theory
Game theory
is a branch of applied mathematics and economics that looks at
situations where multiple players make decisions in an attempt to
maximize their returns. The first documented discussion of it is a
letter written by James Waldegrave, 1st Earl Waldegrave in 1713. Antoine Augustin Cournot's Researches into the Mathematical Principles of the Theory of Wealth in 1838 provided the first general theory. It was not until 1928 that this became a recognized, unique field when John von Neumann published a series of papers. Von Neumann's work in game theory culminated in the 1944 book The Theory of Games and Economic Behavior by von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern.
Military-industrial complex
This section needs additional citations for verification. (November 2007) |
The term military-industrial complex refers to a close and symbiotic relationship among a nation's armed forces, its private industry, and associated political
and commercial interests. In such a system, the military is dependent
on industry to supply material and other support, while the defense
industry depends on government for revenue.
- Skunk Works
- Skunk Works is a term used in engineering and technical fields to describe a group within an organization given a high degree of autonomy and unhampered by bureaucracy, tasked with working on advanced or secret projects. Founded at Lockheed Martin in 1943, the team developed highly innovative aircraft in short time frames, even beating its first deadline by 37 days. Creator of the organization, Kelly Johnson is said to have been an 'organizing genius' and had fourteen basic operating rules.
- Manhattan Project
- The Manhattan Project was the project to develop the first nuclear weapon (atomic bomb) during World War II by the United States, the United Kingdom and Canada. Formally designated as the Manhattan Engineer District, it refers specifically to the period of the project from 1941–1946 under the control of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, under the administration of General Leslie R. Groves. The scientific research was directed by American physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer.
- While the aforementioned persons were influential in the project itself, the value of this project as an influence on organized collaboration is better attributed to Vannevar Bush. In early 1940, Bush lobbied for the creation of the National Defense Research Committee. Frustrated by previous bureaucratic failures in implementing technology in World War I, Bush sought to organize the scientific power of the United States for greater success.
- The project succeeded in developing and detonating three nuclear weapons in 1945: a test detonation of a plutonium implosion bomb on July 16 (the Trinity test) near Alamogordo, New Mexico; an enriched uranium bomb code-named "Little Boy" on August 6 over Hiroshima, Japan; and a second plutonium bomb, code-named "Fat Man" on August 9 over Nagasaki, Japan.
Project management
As a discipline, Project Management developed from different fields
of application including construction, engineering, and defense. In the
United States, the forefather of project management is Henry Gantt, called the father of planning and control techniques, who is famously known for his use of the "bar" chart as a project management tool, for being an associate of Frederick Winslow Taylor's theories of scientific management,
and for his study of the work and management of Navy ship building. His
work is the forerunner to many modern project management tools
including the work breakdown structure (WBS) and resource allocation.
The 1950s marked the beginning of the modern project management era.
Again, in the United States, prior to the 1950s, projects were managed
on an ad hoc basis using mostly Gantt charts, and informal techniques and tools. At that time, two mathematical project scheduling models were developed: (1) the "Program Evaluation and Review Technique" or PERT, developed as part of the United States Navy's (in conjunction with the Lockheed Corporation) Polaris missile submarine program; and (2) the "Critical Path Method" (CPM) developed in a joint venture by both DuPont Corporation and Remington Rand Corporation for managing plant maintenance projects. These mathematical techniques quickly spread into many private enterprises.
In 1969, the Project Management Institute
(PMI) was formed to serve the interest of the project management
industry. The premise of PMI is that the tools and techniques of project
management are common even among the widespread application of projects
from the software industry to the construction industry. In 1981, the PMI Board of Directors authorized the development of what has become A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK), containing the standards and guidelines of practice that are widely used throughout the profession. The International Project Management Association
(IPMA), founded in Europe in 1967, has undergone a similar development
and instituted the IPMA Project Baseline. Both organizations are now
participating in the development of a global project management
standard.
Academia
- Black Mountain College
- Founded in 1933 by John Andrew Rice, Theodore Dreier and other former faculty of Rollins College, Black Mountain was experimental by nature and committed to an interdisciplinary approach, attracting a faculty which included many of America's leading visual artists, poets, and designers.
- Operating in a relatively isolated rural location with little budget, Black Mountain College inculcated an informal and collaborative spirit, and over its lifetime attracted a venerable roster of instructors. Some of the innovations, relationships and unexpected connections formed at Black Mountain would prove to have a lasting influence on the postwar American art scene, high culture, and eventually pop culture. Buckminster Fuller met student Kenneth Snelson at Black Mountain, and the result was the first geodesic dome (improvised out of slats in the school's back yard); Merce Cunningham formed his dance company; and John Cage staged his first happening.
- Not a haphazardly conceived venture, Black Mountain College was a consciously directed liberal arts school that grew out of the progressive education movement. In its day it was a unique educational experiment for the artists and writers who conducted it, and as such an important incubator for the American avant garde. Black Mountain proved to be an important precursor to and prototype for many of the alternative colleges of today ranging from the University of California, Santa Cruz to Hampshire College and Evergreen State College, among others.
- Learning Community
- Dr. Wolff-Michael Roth and Stuart Lee of the University of Victoria assert that until the early 1990s the individual was the 'unit of instruction' and the focus of research. The two observed that researchers and practitioners switched to the idea that knowing is 'better' thought of as a cultural practice. Roth and Lee also claim that this led to changes in learning and teaching design in which students were encouraged to share their ways of doing mathematics, history, science, with each other. In other words, that children take part in the construction of consensual domains, and 'participate in the negotiation and institutionalisation of … meaning'. In effect, they are participating in learning communities.
- This analysis does not take account of the appearance of Learning communities in the United States in the early 1980s. For example, The Evergreen State College, which is widely considered a pioneer in this area, established an intercollegiate learning community in 1984. In 1985, this same college established The Washington Center for Improving the Quality of Undergraduate Education, which focuses on collaborative education approaches, including learning communities as one of its centerpieces.
Classical music
Main article: Classical music written in collaboration
Although relatively rare compared with collaboration in popular
music, there have been some notable examples of music written in
collaboration between classical composers. Perhaps the best-known
examples are:
- Hexameron, a set of variations for solo piano on a theme from Vincenzo Bellini's opera I puritani. It was written and first performed in 1837. The contributors were Franz Liszt, Frédéric Chopin, Carl Czerny, Sigismond Thalberg, Johann Peter Pixis, and Henri Herz.
- The F-A-E Sonata, a sonata for violin and piano, written in 1853 as a gift for the violinist Joseph Joachim. The composers were Albert Dietrich (first movement), Robert Schumann (second and fourth movements), and Johannes Brahms (third movement).
Contemporary examples
Arts
Collaboration—or joint production by two or more artists—is a common
style among musicians and performance artists. It has not been so
popular, on the other hand, in the world of art, and especially in
modern art. But the strong sense of individualism long possessed by
artists of fine art began to wane around the 1960s, and some artists
working in units have emerged and become widely known along with the
development of new media based on the advances in information
technology. They have changed the concept of art into something that can
be engaged in by more than individual artists alone.
Art groups
- Fluxus
- An international network of artists, composers and designers noted for blending different artistic media and disciplines in the 1960s. Fluxus encouraged a do it yourself aesthetic, and valued simplicity over complexity. Like Dada before it, Fluxus included a strong current of anti-commercialism and an anti-art sensibility, disparaging the conventional market-driven art world in favor of an artist-centered creative practice. As Fluxus artist Robert Filliou wrote, however, Fluxus differed from Dada in its richer set of aspirations, and the positive social and communitarian aspirations of Fluxus far outweighed the anti-art tendency that also marked the group.
Just Buffalo Literary Center, CEPA Gallery, and Big Orbit are three
nonprofit arts organizations in Buffalo, New York, that have shared
space and certain administrative functions since 2005. Just Buffalo
offers an array of literary arts and arts-in-education programs. CEPA
Gallery presents contemporary photo-related art and supports working
artists. And Big Orbit has an art gallery and programs in the fields of
experimental theater, literary performance, new music and sound art.
Once they co-located their administrative offices they quickly
started to realize a number of advantages. Financial savings was an
obvious one (they share equipment, a software contract, phone and
Internet services and more). Physical proximity also helped the three
executives develop a strong sense of trust and respect, and they soon
looked for other ways to collaborate, such as hiring a shared grant
writer who brings in grants for all three organizations.
There have been many benefits: financial savings because of their
shared space, increased donations, and improved artistic programming.
Beyond the tangible benefits, there are important intangibles. The
agency directors share information and ideas, and they coordinate
mailings. Perhaps most important, the organizations have increased their
creativity; being in the same space has led to a "think tank"
atmosphere. One of the three directors notes that "We work so closely …
it's helped us come up with new thinking to expand our capacity and
create a built-in brain trust and support system for problem solving and
practical help."
- Situationist International
- The Situationist International (SI) was a small group of international political and artistic agitators with roots in Marxism, Lettrism and the early 20th century European artistic and political avant-gardes. Formed in 1957, the SI was active in Europe through the 1960s and aspired to major social and political transformations. In the 1960s it split into a number of different groups, including the Situationist Bauhaus, the Antinational and the Second Situationist International. The first SI disbanded in 1972.
Business
Collaboration in business can be found both inter- and intra-organization and ranges from the simplicity of a partnership and crowd funding to the complexity of a multinational corporation.
Collaboration between public, private and voluntary sectors can be
effective in tackling complex policy problems, but may be handled more
effectively by committed boundary-spanning teams and networks than by formal organizational structures.
Collaboration between team members allows for better communication
within the organization and throughout the supply chains. It is a way of
coordinating different ideas from numerous people to generate a wide
variety of knowledge. Collaboration with a selected few firms as opposed
to collaboration with a large number of different firms has been shown
to positively impact firm performance and innovation outcomes.
The recent improvement in technology has provided the world with high
speed internet, wireless connection, and web-based collaboration tools
like blogs, and wikis, and has as such created a "mass collaboration."
People from all over the world are efficiently able to communicate and
share ideas through the internet, or even conferences, without any
geographical barriers. The power of social networks it beginning to
permeate into business culture where many collaborative uses are being
found including file sharing and knowledge transfer.
See also : Management cybernetics
A plethora of studies have shown that collaboration can be a powerful
tool towards higher achievement and increased productivity since
collective efficacy can significantly boost groups’ aspirations,
motivational investment, morale, and resilience to challenges. However, a four-year study of interorganizational collaboration by Fischer and colleagues at the University of Oxford,
found that successful collaboration can be rapidly derailed through
external policy steering, particularly where it undermines relations
built on trust.
Education
Generally defined, an Educational Collaborative Partnership is ongoing involvement between schools and business/industry, unions, governments and community organizations.
Educational Collaborative Partnerships are established by mutual
agreement between two or more parties to work together on projects and
activities that will enhance the quality of education for students while
improving skills critical to success in the workplace.
Collaboration in Education- two or more co-equal individual
voluntarily brings their knowledge and experience together by
interacting toward a common goal in the best interest of students for
the betterment of their education success. Students achieve team
building and communication skills meeting many curricular standards.
Students have the ability to practice real-world communication
experiences. Students gain leadership through collaboration and empowers
peer to peer learning.
When collaborating in education, according to ISTE NEST-S and NEST-T
standards, there is cultural understanding by engaging learners with
other cultures and develop technology in enriched learning environments.
Societal changes that have taken place over the past few decades
allows new ways of conceptualizing collaboration, and to understand the
evolution and expansion of these types of relationships. For example,
economic changes that have taken place domestically and internationally
have resulted in the transformation from an industry-dependent economy
to an information-centered economy that is dependent on new technologies
and expansion of industries that provide services.
From an educational standpoint, such transformations were projected
through federal reports, such as A Nation at Risk in 1983 and What
Matters Most: Teaching for America’s Future in 1996. In these reports,
economic success could be assured if students developed the capacity to
learn how to “manage teams… and…work together successfully in teams”.
The continuing development of Web 2.0 technologies, such as wikis,
blogs, multiplayer games, online communities, and Twitter, among others,
has changed the manner in which students communicate and collaborate.
See also :
- Collaborative Partnerships: Business/Industry-Education
- Learning circle
Music
Main article: Classical music written in collaboration
Musical collaboration occurs when musicians in different places or
groups work on the same album or song. Collaboration between musicians,
especially with regards to jazz, is often heralded as the epitome of
complex collaborative practice. Special websites as well as software
have been created to facilitate musical collaboration over the Internet resulting in the emergence of Online Bands.
Several awards exist specifically for collaboration in music:
- Grammy Award for Best Country Collaboration with Vocals—awarded since 1988
- Grammy Award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals—awarded since 1995
- Grammy Award for Best Rap/Sung Collaboration—awarded since 2002
Entertainment
Collaboration in entertainment is a relatively new phenomenon brought on with the advent of social media, reality TV, and video sharing sites such as YouTube and Vimeo.
Collaboration occurs when writers, directors, actors, producers and
other individuals or groups work on the same television show, short
film, or feature length film. A revolutionary system has been developed
by Will Wright
for the production of the TV series title Bar Karma on CurrentTV.
Special web-based software, titled Storymaker, has been written to
facilitate plot collaboration over the Internet. Organizations such as Orange County Screenwriters Association bring together professional and amateur writers and filmmakers in a collaborative manner for entertainment development.
Publishing
Collaboration in publishing can be as simple as dual-authorship or as complex as commons-based peer production. Technological examples include Usenet, e-mail lists, blogs and Wikis while 'brick and mortar' examples include monographs (books) and periodicals such as newspapers, journals and magazines.
Science
Though there is no political institution organizing the sciences on
an international level, a self-organized, global network had formed in
the late 20th century. Observed by the rise in co-authorships in published papers, Wagner and Leydesdorff found international collaborations to have doubled from 1990 to 2005. While collaborative authorships within nations has also risen, this has done so at a slower rate and is not cited as frequently.
Medicine
In medicine the physician assistant - physician relationship involves a collaborative plan to be on file with each state board of medicine where the PA works. This plan formally delineates the scope of practice approved by the physician.
Technology
Due to the complexity of today's business environment, collaboration
in technology encompasses a broad range of tools that enable groups of
people to work together including social networking, instant messaging,
team spaces, web sharing, audio conferencing, video, and telephony.
Broadly defined, any technology that facilitates linking of two or more
humans to work together can be considered a collaborative tool.
Wikipedia, Blogs, even Twitter are collaborative tools. Many large
companies are developing enterprise collaboration strategies and
standardizing on a collaboration platform to allow their employees,
customers and partners to intelligently connect and interact.
Enterprise collaboration tools are centered around attaining
collective intelligence and staff collaboration at the organization
level, or with partners. These include features such as staff
networking, expert recommendations, information sharing, expertise
location, peer feedback,
and real-time collaboration. At the personal level, this enables
employees to enhance social awareness and their profiles and
interactions Collaboration encompasses both asynchronous and synchronous
methods of communication and serves as an umbrella term for a wide
variety of software packages. Perhaps the most commonly associated form
of synchronous collaboration is web conferencing using tools such as Cisco TelePresence,
Cisco WebEx Meetings, HP Halo Telepresence Solutions, GoToMeeting Web
Conferencing, or Microsoft Live Meeting, but the term can easily be
applied to IP telephony, instant messaging, and rich video interaction
with telepresence, as well. Examples of asynchronous collaboration
software include Cisco WebEx Connect, GoToMeeting, Microsoft Sharepoint and MediaWiki.
The effectiveness of a collaborative effort is driven by three
critical factors: - Communication - Content Management - Workflow
control
- The Internet
- The low cost and nearly instantaneous sharing of ideas, knowledge, and skills has made collaborative work dramatically easier. Not only can a group cheaply communicate and test, but the wide reach of the Internet allows such groups to easily form in the first place, even among niche interests. An example of this is the free software movement in software development which produced GNU and Linux from scratch and has taken over development of Mozilla and OpenOffice.org (formerly known as Netscape Communicator and StarOffice).
- Commons-based peer production
- Commons-based peer production is a term coined by Yale's Law professor Yochai Benkler to describe a new model of economic production in which the creative energy of large numbers of people is coordinated (usually with the aid of the internet) into large, meaningful projects, mostly without traditional hierarchical organization or financial compensation. He compares this to firm production (where a centralized decision process decides what has to be done and by whom) and market-based production (when tagging different prices to different jobs serves as an attractor to anyone interested in doing the job).
- Examples of products created by means of commons-based peer production include Linux, a computer operating system; Slashdot, a news and announcements website; Kuro5hin, a discussion site for technology and culture; Wikipedia, an online encyclopedia; and Clickworkers, a collaborative scientific work. Another example is Socialtext which is a software that uses tools such as wikis and weblogs and helps companies to create a collaborative work environment.
- Massively distributed collaboration
- The term massively distributed collaboration was coined by Mitchell Kapor, in a presentation at UC Berkeley on 2005-11-09, to describe an emerging activity of wikis and electronic mailing lists and blogs and other content-creating virtual communities online.
* HOMESCHOOLING
Homeschooling or homeschool (also called home education or home based learning) is the education of children at home, typically by parents or by tutors, rather than in other formal settings of public or private school. Although prior to the introduction of compulsory school attendance laws, most childhood education occurred within the family or community, homeschooling in the modern sense is an alternative in developed countries
to attending public or private schools. Homeschooling is a legal option
for parents in many countries, allowing them to provide their children
with a learning environment as an alternative to public or private
schools outside the individual's home.
Parents cite numerous reasons as motivations to homeschool their
children. The three reasons that are selected by the majority of
homeschooling parents in the United States are concern about the school environment, to provide religious or moral
instruction, and dissatisfaction with academic instruction at public
and private schools. Homeschooling may also be a factor in the choice of
parenting style.
Homeschooling can be an option for families living in isolated rural
locations, living temporarily abroad, to allow for more traveling, while
many young athletes and actors are taught at home. Homeschooling can be
about mentorship and apprenticeship, where a tutor or teacher is with
the child for many years and then knows the child very well. Recently,
homeschooling has increased in popularity in the United States, with the
percentage of children 5-17 who are homeschooled increasing from 1.7%
in 1999 to 2.9% in 2007.
Homeschooling can be used as a form of supplementary
education, a way of helping children learn, in specific circumstances.
For instance, children that attend downgraded schools can greatly
benefit from homeschooling ways of learning, using the immediacy and low
cost of the Internet. As a synonym to e-learning, homeschooling can be combined with traditional education and lead to better and more complete results. Homeschooling may also refer to instruction in the home under the supervision of correspondence schools or umbrella schools. In some places, an approved curriculum is legally required if children are to be home-schooled. A curriculum-free philosophy of homeschooling may be called unschooling, a term coined in 1977 by American educator and author John Holt in his magazine Growing Without Schooling. In some cases, a liberal arts education is provided using the trivium and quadrivium as the main model.
History
For much of history and in many cultures, enlisting professional
teachers (whether as tutors or in a formal academic setting) was an
option available only to a small elite. Thus, until relatively recently,
the vast majority of people were educated by family members (especially
during early childhood), family friends or any one with useful
knowledge.
The earliest public schools in the modern West began in the early 16th century in the German states of Gotha and Thurungia.
However, even in the 18th century, the vast majority of people in
Europe lacked formal schooling, which means they were homeschooled,
tutored or received no education at all. The same was also true for colonial America and for the United States until the 1850s.
Formal schooling in a classroom setting has been the most common means
of schooling throughout the world, especially in developed countries,
since the early and mid 19th century. Native Americans, who
traditionally used homeschooling and apprenticeship, vigorously resisted
compulsory education in the United States.
In the 1960s, Rousas John Rushdoony began to advocate homeschooling, which he saw as a way to combat the intentionally secular nature of the U.S. public school system. He vigorously attacked progressive school reformers such as Horace Mann and John Dewey and argued for the dismantling of the state's influence in education in three works: Intellectual Schizophrenia (a general and concise study of education), The Messianic Character of American Education (a history and castigation of public education in the U.S.), and The Philosophy of the Christian Curriculum (a parent-oriented pedagogical statement). Rushdoony was frequently called as an expert witness by the HSLDA (Home School Legal Defense Association) in court cases.
During this time, the American educational professionals Raymond and Dorothy Moore began to research the academic validity of the rapidly growing Early Childhood Education
movement. This research included independent studies by other
researchers and a review of over 8,000 studies bearing on Early
Childhood Education and the physical and mental development of children.
They asserted that formal schooling before ages 8–12 not only lacked
the anticipated effectiveness, but was actually harmful to children. The
Moores began to publish their view that formal schooling was damaging
young children academically, socially, mentally, and even
physiologically. They presented evidence that childhood problems such as
juvenile delinquency, nearsightedness, increased enrollment of students
in special education classes, and behavioral problems were the result of increasingly earlier enrollment of students. The Moores cited studies demonstrating that orphans who were given surrogate mothers
were measurably more intelligent, with superior long term effects –
even though the mothers were "mentally retarded teenagers" – and that
illiterate tribal mothers in Africa produced children who were socially
and emotionally more advanced than typical western children, "by western
standards of measurement."
Their primary assertion was that the bonds and emotional development
made at home with parents during these years produced critical long term
results that were cut short by enrollment in schools, and could neither
be replaced nor afterward corrected in an institutional setting.Recognizing a necessity for early out-of-home care for some children – particularly special needs
and starkly impoverished children, and children from exceptionally
inferior homes– they maintained that the vast majority of children are
far better situated at home, even with mediocre parents, than with the
most gifted and motivated teachers in a school setting (assuming that
the child has a gifted and motivated teacher). They described the
difference as follows: "This is like saying, if you can help a child by
taking him off the cold street and housing him in a warm tent, then warm
tents should be provided for all children – when obviously most children already have even more secure housing."
Similar to Holt, the Moores embraced homeschooling after the publication of their first work, Better Late Than Early, 1975, and went on to become important homeschool advocates and consultants with the publication of books like Home Grown Kids, 1981, Homeschool Burnout, and others.
At the time, other authors published books questioning the premises and efficacy of compulsory schooling, including Deschooling Society by Ivan Illich, 1970 and No More Public School by Harold Bennet, 1972.
In 1976, Holt published Instead of Education; Ways to Help People Do Things Better. In its conclusion, he called for a "Children's Underground Railroad" to help children escape compulsory schooling.
In response, Holt was contacted by families from around the U.S. to
tell him that they were educating their children at home. In 1977, after
corresponding with a number of these families, Holt began producing Growing Without Schooling, a newsletter dedicated to home education.
In 1980, Holt said, "I want to make it clear that I don't see
homeschooling as some kind of answer to badness of schools. I think that
the home is the proper base for the exploration of the world which we
call learning or education. Home would be the best base no matter how
good the schools were."
Holt later wrote a book about homeschooling, Teach Your Own, in 1981.
One common theme in the homeschool philosophies of both Holt and the
Moores is that home education should not be an attempt to bring the
school construct into the home, or a view of education as an academic
preliminary to life. They viewed it as a natural, experiential aspect of
life that occurs as the members of the family are involved with one
another in daily living.
Methodology
Homeschools use a wide variety of methods and materials. Families,
for a variety of reasons (parent education, finances, educational
philosophies, future educational plans, where they live, past
educational experiences of the child, child’s interests and temperament)
chose different educational methods, representing a variety of
educational philosophies and paradigms. Some of the methods used include
Classical Education Classical education (including Trivium, Quadrivium), Charlotte Mason education, Montessori method, Theory of multiple intelligences, Unschooling, Radical Unschooling, Waldorf education, School-at-home (curriculum choices from both secular and religious publishers), A Thomas Jefferson Education,
unit studies, curriculum made up from private or small publishers,
apprenticeship, hands-on-learning, distance learning (both on-line and
correspondence), dual enrollment in local schools or colleges, and
curriculum provided by a local schools and many others. Some of these
approaches are used in private and public schools. Educational research
and studies support the use of some of these methods. Unschooling,
natural learning, Charlotte Mason Education, Montessori, Waldorf,
apprenticeship, hands-on-learning, unit studies are supported to varying
degrees by research by constructivist learning theories and situated cognitive
theories. Elements of these theories may be found in the other methods
as well. A student’s education may be customized to support his learning
level, style, and interests.
It is not uncommon for a student to experience more than one approach
as the family discovers what works best as students grow and
circumstances change. Many families use an eclectic approach, picking
and choosing from various suppliers. For sources of curricula and books, "Homeschooling in the United States: 2003"
found that 78 percent utilized "a public library"; 77 percent used "a
homeschooling catalog, publisher, or individual specialist"; 68 percent
used "retail bookstore or other store"; 60 percent used "an education
publisher that was not affiliated with homeschooling." "Approximately
half" used curriculum or books from "a homeschooling organization", 37
percent from a "church, synagogue or other religious institution" and 23
percent from "their local public school or district." 41 percent in
2003 utilized some sort of distance learning,
approximately 20 percent by "television, video or radio"; 19 percent
via "Internet, e-mail, or the World Wide Web"; and 15 percent taking a
"correspondence course by mail designed specifically for homeschoolers."
Individual governmental units, e. g. states and local districts, vary
in official curriculum and attendance requirements.
Unit studies
In a unit study approach, multiple subjects like math, science,
history, art, and geography, are studied in relation to a single topic
like Native Americans, ancient Rome, or whales. For example, a unit
study of Native Americans could combine age-appropriate lessons and
projects teaching literature (Native American legends), writing (report
on a famous native American), vocabulary and spelling (Native American
words that are now part of the English language), art and crafts
(pottery, beadwork, sand painting, making moccasins), geography
(original locations of tribes in the Americas), social studies (cultures
of the different tribes), and science (plants and animals used by
Native Americans). Unit studies may be purchased or be parent prepared. Unit studies are useful for teaching multiple grades simultaneously as the difficulty level can be adjusted for each student.
All-in-one curricula
All-in-one homeschooling curricula (variously known as
"school-at-home", "The Traditional Approach", "school-in-a-box" or "The
Structured Approach"), are instructionist methods of teaching in which
the curriculum and homework of the student are similar or identical to
taught in a public or private school. Purchased as a grade level package
or separately by subject, the package may contain all of the needed
books, materials, internet access for remote testing, traditional tests,
answer keys, and extensive teacher guides. These materials cover the
same subject areas as public schools which allow an easy transition back
into the school system. These are among the more expensive options for
homeschooling, but they require minimal preparation and are easy to use.
Examples of curriculum providers are Calvert School, A Beka Book, Bob Jones Press, Alpha Omega Publishers, Educator’s Publishing Service, Modern Curriculum Press, University of North Dakota Distance Education,
etc. Some localities provide the same materials used at local schools
to homeschoolers. Purchase of a complete curriculum and their
teaching/grading service from an accredited distance learning curriculum
provider may allow students to obtain an accredited high school
diploma.
Unschooling and natural learning
Some people use the terms "unschooling" or "radical unschooling" to describe all methods of education that are not based in a school.
"Natural learning" refers to a type of learning-on-demand where
children pursue knowledge based on their interests and parents take an
active part in facilitating activities and experiences conducive to
learning but do not rely heavily on textbooks or spend much time
"teaching", looking instead for "learning moments" throughout their
daily activities. Parents see their role as that of affirming through
positive feedback and modeling the necessary skills, and the child's
role as being responsible for asking and learning.
The term "unschooling" as coined by John Holt describes an approach
in which parents do not authoritatively direct the child's education,
but interact with the child following the child's own interests, leaving
them free to explore and learn as their interests lead.
"Unschooling" does not indicate that the child is not being educated,
but that the child is not being "schooled", or educated in a rigid
school-type manner. Holt asserted that children learn through the
experiences of life, and he encouraged parents to live their lives with
their child. Also known as interest-led or child-led learning,
unschooling attempts to follow opportunities as they arise in real life,
through which a child will learn without coercion. An unschooled child
may utilize texts or classroom instruction, but these are not considered
central to education. Holt asserted that there is no specific body of
knowledge that is, or should be, required of a child.
"Unschooling" should not be confused with "deschooling," which may be
used to indicate an anti-"institutional school" philosophy, or a period
or form of deprogramming for children or parents who have previously
been schooled.
Both unschooling and natural learning advocates believe that children
learn best by doing; a child may learn reading to further an interest
about history or other cultures, or math skills by operating a small
business or sharing in family finances. They may learn animal husbandry
keeping dairy goats or meat rabbits, botany tending a kitchen garden,
chemistry to understand the operation of firearms or the internal
combustion engine, or politics and local history by following a zoning
or historical-status dispute. While any type of homeschoolers may also
use these methods, the unschooled child initiates these learning
activities. The natural learner participates with parents and others in
learning together.
Another prominent proponent of unschooling is John Taylor Gatto, author of Dumbing Us Down, The Exhausted School, A Different Kind of Teacher, and Weapons of Mass Instruction.
Gatto argues that public education is the primary tool of "state
controlled consciousness" and serves as a prime illustration of the total institution — a social system which impels obedience to the state and quells free thinking or dissent.
Autonomous learning
Autonomous learning is a school of education which sees learners as individuals who can and should be autonomous i.e. be responsible for their own learning climate.
Autonomous education helps students develop their self-consciousness,
vision, practicality and freedom of discussion. These attributes serve
to aid the student in his/her independent learning.
Autonomous learning is very popular with those who home educate their
children. The child usually gets to decide what projects they wish to
tackle or what interests to pursue. In home education this can be
instead of or in addition to regular subjects like doing math or
English.
According to Home Education UK the autonomous education philosophy emerged from the epistemology of Karl Popper in The Myth of the Framework: In Defence of Science and Rationality, which is developed in the debates, which seek to rebut the neo-Marxist social philosophy of convergence proposed by the Frankfurt School (e.g. Theodor W. Adorno Jürgen Habermas Max Horkheimer).
Homeschooling and college admissions
Many students choose to pursue higher education at the college or university level, some through dual enrollment while in high school and through standardized tests such as the College Level Examination Program (CLEP) and DANTES Subject Standard Tests (DSST).
The College Board recommends that homeschooled students keep detailed records and portfolios to aid them in the admission process.
Over the last several decades, US colleges and universities have become increasingly open to accepting home-schooled students. 75% of colleges and universities have an official policy for homeschool admissions. 95% have received applications from homeshoolers for admission.
Documents that may be required for admission vary, but may include
ACT/SAT scores, essays, high school transcript, letters of
recommendation, SAT 2 scores, personal interviews, portfolio, and a GED.
78% of admissions officers expect homeschooled students to do as well
or better than traditional high school graduates at college.Students coming from a home school graduated college at a higher rate
than their peers¬—66.7 percent compared to 57.5 percent—and earned
higher grade point averages along the way.
Such students have matriculated at over 900 different colleges and
universities, including institutions with highly selective standards of
admission such as the US military academies, Rice University, Haverford College, Harvard University, Stanford University, Cornell University, Brown University, Dartmouth College, and Princeton University.
Homeschool cooperatives
A Homeschool Cooperative is a cooperative
of families who homeschool their children. It provides an opportunity
for children to learn from other parents who are more specialized in
certain areas or subjects. Co-ops also provide social interaction for
homeschooled children. They may take lessons together or go on field
trips. Some co-ops also offer events such as prom and graduation for
homeschoolers.
Homeschoolers are beginning to utilize Web 2.0 as a way to simulate homeschool cooperatives online. With social networks
homeschoolers can chat, discuss threads in forums, share information
and tips, and even participate in online classes via blackboard systems
similar to those used by colleges.
Homeschool athletics
In 1994, Jason Taylor was a homeschool football player in
Pennsylvania who engaged a legal battle against the N.C.A.A. (the
leading oversight association governing U.S. collegiate athletics) and
its classification of homeschool athletes as essentially high school
drop-outs. Taylor's legal victory has provided a precedent for thousands
of other homeschool athletes to compete in colleges and attain the same
opportunities in education and professional development that other
athletes enjoy.
Other homeschool students who have risen to the top of collegiate
competition include N.C.A.A. 2005 champion tennis player, Chris Lam,
Kevin Johnson of the Tulsa University basketball team, 2010-2011 Big South Player of the Year Jesse Sanders of the Liberty University Flames and the 2007 Heisman Trophy winner Tim Tebow from the University of Florida . In 2012, another homeschool student was a Heisman Trophy finalist: Collin Klein of Kansas State University.
In Texas, Six-Man Football has also been popular among homeschoolers,
with at least five teams being fielded for the 2008-2009 season.
Interestingly enough, the top 3 places in the Texas Independent State
Championship (TISC, also referred to as "the Ironman Bowl) were claimed
by homeschool teams.
Motivations
Reason for homeschooling | Number of homeschooled students |
Percent | s.e. |
---|---|---|---|
Can give child better education at home | 415,000 | 48.9 | 3.79 |
Religious reason | 327,000 | 38.4 | 4.44 |
Poor learning environment at school | 218,000 | 25.6 | 3.44 |
Family reasons | 143,000 | 16.8 | 2.79 |
To develop character/morality | 128,000 | 15.1 | 3.39 |
Object to what school teaches | 103,000 | 12.1 | 2.11 |
School does not challenge child | 98,000 | 11.6 | 2.39 |
Other problems with available schools | 76,000 | 9.0 | 2.40 |
Child has special needs/disability | 69,000 | 8.2 | 1.89 |
Transportation/convenience | 23,000 | 2.7 | 1.48 |
Child not old enough to enter school | 15,000 | 1.8 | 1.13 |
Parent's career | 12,000 | 1.5 | 0.80 |
Could not get into desired school | 12,000 | 1.5 | 0.99 |
Other reasons* | 189,000 | 22.2 | 2.90 |
Parents give many different reasons for homeschooling their children.
In the 2003 and 2007 NHES, parents were asked whether particular
reasons for homeschooling their children applied to them. The three
reasons selected by parents of more than two-thirds of students were
concern about the school environment, to provide religious or moral
instruction, and dissatisfaction with the academic instruction available
at other schools. From 2003 to 2007, the percentage of students whose
parents reported homeschooling to provide religious or moral instruction
increased from 72 percent to 83 percent. In 2007, the most common
reason parents gave as the most important was a desire to provide
religious or moral instruction (36 percent of students). This reason was
followed by a concern about the school environment (such as safety,
drugs, or negative peer pressure) (21 percent), dissatisfaction with
academic instruction (17 percent), and "other reasons" including family
time, finances, travel, and distance (14 percent). Other reasons include more flexibility in educational practices and family core stability for children with learning disabilities
or prolonged chronic illnesses, or for children of missionaries,
military families, or families who move often, as frequently as every
two years.
Research
Supportive
Test results
Numerous studies may suggest that homeschooled students on average outperform their peers on standardized tests. Homeschooling Achievement, a compilation of studies published by the Home School Legal Defense Association, supported the academic integrity of homeschooling. This booklet summarized a 1997 study by Ray and the 1999 Rudner study.
The Rudner study noted two limitations of its own research: it is not
necessarily representative of all homeschoolers and it is not a
comparison with other schooling methods.
Among the homeschooled students who took the tests, the average
homeschooled student outperformed his public school peers by 30 to 37
percentile points across all subjects. The study also indicates that
public school performance gaps between minorities and genders were
virtually non-existent among the homeschooled students who took the
tests.
A study conducted in 2008 found that 11,739 homeschooled students, on
average, scored 37 percentile points above public school students on
standardized achievement tests.
This is consistent with the Rudner study (1999). However, Rudner has
said that these same students in public school may have scored just as
well because of the dedicated parents they had.
The Ray study also found that homeschooled students who had a certified
teacher as a parent scored one percentile lower than homeschooled
students who did not have a certified teacher as a parent.
In 2011 Martin-Chang found that unschooling children ages 5–10 scored
significantly below traditionally educated children, while academically
oriented home schooled children scored from one half grade level above
to 4.5 grade levels above traditionally school children on standardized
tests (n=37 home schooled children matched with children from the same
socioeconomic and educational background).
In the 1970s Raymond S. and Dorothy N. Moore conducted four federally
funded analyses of more than 8,000 early childhood studies, from which
they published their original findings in Better Late Than Early, 1975. This was followed by School Can Wait, a repackaging of these same findings designed specifically for educational professionals. They concluded that, "where possible, children should be withheld from formal schooling until at least ages eight to ten."
Their reason was that children, "are not mature enough for formal
school programs until their senses, coordination, neurological
development and cognition are ready." They concluded that the outcome of
forcing children into formal schooling is a sequence of "1) uncertainty
as the child leaves the family nest early for a less secure
environment, 2) puzzlement at the new pressures and restrictions of the
classroom, 3) frustration because unready learning tools – senses,
cognition, brain hemispheres, coordination – cannot handle the
regimentation of formal lessons and the pressures they bring, 4)
hyperactivity growing out of nerves and jitter, from frustration, 5)
failure which quite naturally flows from the four experiences above, and
6) delinquency which is failure's twin and apparently for the same
reason."
According to the Moores, "early formal schooling is burning out our
children. Teachers who attempt to cope with these youngsters also are
burning out."Aside from academic performance, they think early formal schooling also
destroys "positive sociability", encourages peer dependence, and
discourages self-worth, optimism, respect for parents, and trust in
peers. They believe this situation is particularly acute for boys
because of their delay in maturity. The Moores cited a Smithsonian
Report on the development of genius, indicating a requirement for "1)
much time spent with warm, responsive parents and other adults, 2) very
little time spent with peers, and 3) a great deal of free exploration
under parental guidance."
Their analysis suggested that children need "more of home and less of
formal school" "more free exploration with... parents, and fewer limits
of classroom and books," and "more old fashioned chores – children
working with parents – and less attention to rivalry sports and
amusements."
Socialization
John Taylor later found, using the Piers-Harris Children's
Self-Concept Scale, "while half of the conventionally schooled children
scored at or below the 50th percentile (in self-concept), only 10.3% of
the home-schooling children did so."
He further stated that "the self-concept of home-schooling children is
significantly higher statistically than that of children attending
conventional school. This has implications in the areas of academic
achievement and socialization which have been found to parallel
self-concept. Regarding socialization, Taylor's results would mean that
very few home-schooling children are socially deprived. He states that
critics who speak out against homeschooling on the basis of social
deprivation are actually addressing an area which favors homeschoolers.
In 2003, the National Home Education Research Institute conducted a
survey of 7,300 U.S. adults who had been homeschooled (5,000 for more
than seven years). Their findings included:
- Homeschool graduates are active and involved in their communities. 71% participate in an ongoing community service activity, like coaching a sports team, volunteering at a school, or working with a church or neighborhood association, compared with 37% of U.S. adults of similar ages from a traditional education background.
- Homeschool graduates are more involved in civic affairs and vote in much higher percentages than their peers. 76% of those surveyed between the ages of 18 and 24 voted within the last five years, compared with only 29% of the corresponding U.S. populace. The numbers are even greater in older age groups, with voting levels not falling below 95%, compared with a high of 53% for the corresponding U.S. populace.
Criticism
Critics claim the studies that show that homeschooled students do better on standardized tests, compare voluntary homeschool testing with mandatory public-school testing.
By contrast, SAT and ACT tests are self-selected by homeschooled and
formally schooled students alike. Homeschoolers averaged higher scores
on these college entrance tests in South Carolina.
Other scores (1999 data) showed mixed results, for example showing
higher levels for homeschoolers in English (homeschooled 23.4 vs
national average 20.5) and reading (homeschooled 24.4 vs national
average 21.4) on the ACT, but mixed scores in math (homeschooled 20.4 vs
national average 20.7 on the ACT as opposed homeschooled 535 vs
national average 511 on the 1999 SAT math).
Some advocates of homeschooling and educational choice counter with
an input-output theory, pointing out that home educators expend only an
average of $500–$600 a year on each student, in comparison to
$9,000-$10,000 for each public school student in the United States,
which suggests home-educated students would be especially dominant on
tests if afforded access to an equal commitment of tax-funded
educational resources.
Controversy and criticism
Opposition to homeschooling comes from some organizations of teachers and school districts. The National Education Association, a United States teachers' union and professional association, opposes homeschooling. Criticisms by such opponents include:
- Inadequate standards of academic quality and comprehensiveness
- Lack of socialization with peers of different ethnic and religious backgrounds
- The potential for development of religious or social extremism/individualism
- Potential for development of parallel societies that do not fit into standards of citizenship and community
Stanford University political scientist Professor Rob Reich (not to be confused with former U.S. Secretary of Labor, Robert Reich) wrote in The Civic Perils of Homeschooling
(2002) that homeschooling can potentially give students a one-sided
point of view, as their parents may, even unwittingly, block or diminish
all points of view but their own in teaching. He also argues that
homeschooling, by reducing students' contact with peers, reduces their
sense of civic engagement with their community.
Gallup polls of American voters have shown a significant change in
attitude in the last 20 years, from 73% opposed to home education in
1985 to 54% opposed in 2001.
International status and statistics
Main article: Homeschooling international status and statistics
Homeschooling is legal
in many countries. Countries with the most prevalent home education
movements include Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom,
and the United States. Some countries have highly regulated home
education programs as an extension of the compulsory school system;
others, such as Sweden and Germany,
have outlawed it entirely. Brazil has a law project in process. In
other countries, while not restricted by law, homeschooling is not
socially acceptable or considered undesirable and is virtually
non-existent.
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